diff --git a/content/services/xmpp-account.md b/content/services/xmpp-account.md
index 4d62a9f..0f36d6a 100644
--- a/content/services/xmpp-account.md
+++ b/content/services/xmpp-account.md
@@ -9,13 +9,11 @@ registration-needed = true
   <p><strong>JID:</strong> <span id="xmpp-jid"></span></p>
   <p><strong>Password:</strong> Use the same password that you used during registration.</p>
 </div>
-
 <div id="xmpp-loggedout" style="display:none">
   <p>XMPP has been around since 1999, originally called Jabber. It was built as an open and decentralized protocol so that anyone could run their own server and still talk to people on other servers. It works in the same way email works across providers.</p>
   <p>No ads reading your conversations, no algorithm deciding who sees what, no single corporation owning the network or able to shut it off. Just an open standard that's outlasted most of the modern chat apps that came after it.</p>
   <p>Please <a href="/signup/">sign up</a> to have an XMPP account.</p>
 </div>
-
 <script>
 (function () {
   var username = localStorage.getItem('f4_username');
diff --git a/docs/blog/index.html b/docs/blog/index.html
index 13d534f..e593dd6 100644
--- a/docs/blog/index.html
+++ b/docs/blog/index.html
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
 All updates
 </button>
 <button class=rss-subscribe__item data-rss-url=https://freedoms4.org/blog/index.xml>
-Blog posts</button></div></div></div></div><nav class="menu language"><ul class="menu__list language__list"><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/>Home</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/blog/>Blog</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/services/>Services</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/uninotes/>UniNotes</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/contact/>Contact</a></li></ul></nav></header><main class=main><nav class="uninotes-breadcrumbs breadcrumbs"><a href=/blog/>Blog</a></nav><h1>All Posts | <a href=/categories/ style=text-decoration:none;color:var(--accent-color)>Categories</a></h1><h2 class=home-post-title><a href=/blog/what-is-education/>What is Education?</a></h2><time class=published-date datetime=2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00>Posted on: March 1, 2026</time><p class=summary>What is Education? # Education simply means “learning”. It’s a natural process.
-Ratio of components in Education: # 50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% …</p><nav class=paginator></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
+Blog posts</button></div></div></div></div><nav class="menu language"><ul class="menu__list language__list"><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/>Home</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/blog/>Blog</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/services/>Services</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/uninotes/>UniNotes</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/contact/>Contact</a></li></ul></nav></header><main class=main><nav class="uninotes-breadcrumbs breadcrumbs"><a href=/blog/>Blog</a></nav><h1>All Posts | <a href=/categories/ style=text-decoration:none;color:var(--accent-color)>Categories</a></h1><h2 class=home-post-title><a href=/blog/what-is-education/>What is Education?</a></h2><time class=published-date datetime=2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00>Posted on: March 1, 2026</time><p class=summary>What is Education? Education simply means “learning”. It’s a natural process.
+Ratio of components in Education: 50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% …</p><nav class=paginator></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
 <a href=/terms/>Terms and Conditions</a> <a href=/privacy/>Privacy Policy</a>
 <a href=/changelog/>Changelog</a></p><p class=footer__theme-info>Built with <a href=https://gohugo.io>Hugo</a> and based on <a href=https://github.com/CyrusYip/hugo-theme-yue>Yue</a> theme</p></footer><script>(function(){document.querySelectorAll(".menu__item").forEach(function(e){var t=e.querySelector("a");t&&t.getAttribute("href")==="/uninotes/"&&e.classList.add("menu__item--uninotes")})})()</script><script>(function(){var e=document.getElementById("theme-toggle");if(!e)return;function t(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");return e?e:window.matchMedia("(prefers-color-scheme: light)").matches?"light":"dark"}function n(e){document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.setItem("theme",e)}n(t()),e.addEventListener("click",function(){var e=document.documentElement.getAttribute("data-theme")||t();n(e==="dark"?"light":"dark")})})()</script><script>(function(){var t="https://backend.freedoms4.org/auth.php",e=localStorage.getItem("f4_username");if(!e)return;function n(e){var t,n,o,i,a,c,r=document.querySelector(".brand__auth");r&&!r.querySelector(".brand__auth-user")&&(r.classList.add("brand__auth--loggedin"),t=document.createElement("div"),t.className="brand__auth-user",n=document.createElement("button"),n.className="brand__auth-user-btn",n.setAttribute("aria-label","Account menu"),c=document.createElement("span"),c.innerHTML='<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24" width="12" height="12" fill="currentColor"><path d="M12 12c2.7 0 4.8-2.1 4.8-4.8S14.7 2.4 12 2.4 7.2 4.5 7.2 7.2 9.3 12 12 12zm0 2.4c-3.2 0-9.6 1.6-9.6 4.8v2.4h19.2v-2.4c0-3.2-6.4-4.8-9.6-4.8z"/></svg>',n.appendChild(c.firstChild),n.appendChild(document.createTextNode(" "+e)),o=document.createElement("div"),o.className="brand__auth-user-dropdown",i=document.createElement("button"),i.className="brand__auth-user-logout",i.textContent="Log Out",i.addEventListener("click",s),e==="hyzen"&&(a=document.createElement("a"),a.className="brand__auth-user-admin",a.href="/admin/",a.textContent="User Management",o.appendChild(a)),o.appendChild(i),o.appendChild(i),t.appendChild(n),t.appendChild(o),r.appendChild(t),n.addEventListener("click",function(e){e.stopPropagation(),t.classList.toggle("is-open")}),document.addEventListener("click",function(){t.classList.remove("is-open")}))}function s(){fetch(t,{method:"POST",headers:{"Content-Type":"application/json"},credentials:"include",body:JSON.stringify({action:"logout"})}).finally(function(){localStorage.removeItem("f4_username"),localStorage.removeItem("f4_login_time"),localStorage.removeItem("f4_session_fails"),window.location.reload()})}n(e)})()</script><script>(function(){var t,e=document.querySelector(".rss-subscribe");if(!e)return;t=e.querySelector(".rss-subscribe__btn"),t.addEventListener("click",function(t){t.stopPropagation(),e.classList.toggle("is-open")}),document.addEventListener("click",function(t){e.contains(t.target)||e.classList.remove("is-open")}),e.querySelectorAll(".rss-subscribe__item").forEach(function(t){t.addEventListener("click",function(n){n.stopPropagation();var s,o=t.getAttribute("data-rss-url"),a=t.textContent;function i(){t.textContent="Copied!",setTimeout(function(){t.textContent=a,e.classList.remove("is-open")},1200)}try{s=document.createElement("textarea"),s.value=o,s.style.cssText="position:fixed;top:0;left:0;opacity:0;pointer-events:none;",document.body.appendChild(s),s.focus(),s.select(),document.execCommand("copy"),document.body.removeChild(s),i()}catch{navigator.clipboard&&navigator.clipboard.writeText(o).then(i).catch(function(){t.textContent=o})}})})})()</script><script src=/js/session-check.js></script></body></html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/docs/blog/index.xml b/docs/blog/index.xml
index 918f717..c2c6c3a 100644
--- a/docs/blog/index.xml
+++ b/docs/blog/index.xml
@@ -1,21 +1,16 @@
-<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="yes"?><rss version="2.0" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom"><channel><title>Blog on Freedoms4</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/blog/</link><description>Recent blog posts on Freedoms4</description><generator>Hugo</generator><language>en-us</language><managingEditor>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</managingEditor><webMaster>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</webMaster><lastBuildDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://freedoms4.org/blog/index.xml" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><item><title>What is Education?</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</link><pubDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</pubDate><author>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</author><guid>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</guid><description>&lt;h1 class="heading" id="what-is-education"&gt;
- What is Education?&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#what-is-education"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;p&gt;Education simply means &amp;ldquo;learning&amp;rdquo;. It&amp;rsquo;s a natural process.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h3 class="heading" id="ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;
- Ratio of components in Education:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h3 class="heading" id="education-vs-academics"&gt;
- Education vs Academics:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#education-vs-academics"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h4 class="heading" id="academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;
- Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let&amp;rsquo;s see what the system has become nowadays:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;ul&gt;
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="yes"?><rss version="2.0" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom"><channel><title>Blog on Freedoms4</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/blog/</link><description>Recent blog posts on Freedoms4</description><generator>Hugo</generator><language>en-us</language><managingEditor>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</managingEditor><webMaster>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</webMaster><lastBuildDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://freedoms4.org/blog/index.xml" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><item><title>What is Education?</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</link><pubDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</pubDate><author>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</author><guid>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</guid><description>&lt;h1 class="heading" id="what-is-education"&gt;What is Education?&lt;/h1&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;Education simply means &amp;ldquo;learning&amp;rdquo;. It&amp;rsquo;s a natural process.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h3 class="heading" id="ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;Ratio of components in Education:&lt;/h3&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h3 class="heading" id="education-vs-academics"&gt;Education vs Academics:&lt;/h3&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h4 class="heading" id="academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let&amp;rsquo;s see what the system has become nowadays:&lt;/h4&gt;
+&lt;ul&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Wrong ratio of knowledge, skill, experience (knowledge takes about 90%).&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Generalised curriculum for all students.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;/ul&gt;
-&lt;h4 class="heading" id="extra-bad"&gt;
- Extra bad:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#extra-bad"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;ul&gt;
+&lt;h4 class="heading" id="extra-bad"&gt;Extra bad:&lt;/h4&gt;
+&lt;ul&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Goals are only bound to exams/grades, degree or certifications (year 1088), then getting jobs.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Unhealthy pressure and competition for students.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Money game.&lt;/li&gt;
diff --git a/docs/blog/what-is-education/index.html b/docs/blog/what-is-education/index.html
index 5b23be4..776193e 100644
--- a/docs/blog/what-is-education/index.html
+++ b/docs/blog/what-is-education/index.html
@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>What is Education? | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content=" What is Education? # Education simply means “learning”. It’s a natural process.
-Ratio of components in Education: # 50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.
-Education vs Academics: # Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.
-Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let’s see what the system has become nowadays: # Wrong ratio of knowledge, skill, experience (knowledge takes about 90%). Generalised curriculum for all students. Extra bad: # Goals are only bound to exams/grades, degree or certifications (year 1088), then getting jobs. Unhealthy pressure and competition for students. Money game. Politics. Education as a concept/implementation/system is good. Academics is good only as a concept. It’s implementation and system is always the worst and corrupted."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="What is Education?"><meta property="og:description" content="What is Education? # Education simply means “learning”. It’s a natural process.
-Ratio of components in Education: # 50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.
-Education vs Academics: # Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.
-Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let’s see what the system has become nowadays: # Wrong ratio of knowledge, skill, experience (knowledge takes about 90%). Generalised curriculum for all students. Extra bad: # Goals are only bound to exams/grades, degree or certifications (year 1088), then getting jobs. Unhealthy pressure and competition for students. Money game. Politics. Education as a concept/implementation/system is good. Academics is good only as a concept. It’s implementation and system is always the worst and corrupted."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="blog"><meta property="article:published_time" content="2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00"><meta property="article:modified_time" content="2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00"><meta property="article:tag" content="Education"><meta property="article:tag" content="Academics"><meta property="article:tag" content="System"><meta itemprop=name content="What is Education?"><meta itemprop=description content="What is Education? # Education simply means “learning”. It’s a natural process.
-Ratio of components in Education: # 50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.
-Education vs Academics: # Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.
-Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let’s see what the system has become nowadays: # Wrong ratio of knowledge, skill, experience (knowledge takes about 90%). Generalised curriculum for all students. Extra bad: # Goals are only bound to exams/grades, degree or certifications (year 1088), then getting jobs. Unhealthy pressure and competition for students. Money game. Politics. Education as a concept/implementation/system is good. Academics is good only as a concept. It’s implementation and system is always the worst and corrupted."><meta itemprop=datePublished content="2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00"><meta itemprop=dateModified content="2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00"><meta itemprop=wordCount content="313"><meta itemprop=keywords content="Education,Academics,System"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>What is Education? | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="What is Education? Education simply means “learning”. It’s a natural process.
+Ratio of components in Education: 50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.
+Education vs Academics: Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.
+Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let’s see what the system has become nowadays: Wrong ratio of knowledge, skill, experience (knowledge takes about 90%). Generalised curriculum for all students. Extra bad: Goals are only bound to exams/grades, degree or certifications (year 1088), then getting jobs. Unhealthy pressure and competition for students. Money game. Politics. Education as a concept/implementation/system is good. Academics is good only as a concept. It’s implementation and system is always the worst and corrupted."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="What is Education?"><meta property="og:description" content="What is Education? Education simply means “learning”. It’s a natural process.
+Ratio of components in Education: 50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.
+Education vs Academics: Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.
+Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let’s see what the system has become nowadays: Wrong ratio of knowledge, skill, experience (knowledge takes about 90%). Generalised curriculum for all students. Extra bad: Goals are only bound to exams/grades, degree or certifications (year 1088), then getting jobs. Unhealthy pressure and competition for students. Money game. Politics. Education as a concept/implementation/system is good. Academics is good only as a concept. It’s implementation and system is always the worst and corrupted."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="blog"><meta property="article:published_time" content="2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00"><meta property="article:modified_time" content="2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00"><meta property="article:tag" content="Education"><meta property="article:tag" content="Academics"><meta property="article:tag" content="System"><meta itemprop=name content="What is Education?"><meta itemprop=description content="What is Education? Education simply means “learning”. It’s a natural process.
+Ratio of components in Education: 50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.
+Education vs Academics: Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.
+Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let’s see what the system has become nowadays: Wrong ratio of knowledge, skill, experience (knowledge takes about 90%). Generalised curriculum for all students. Extra bad: Goals are only bound to exams/grades, degree or certifications (year 1088), then getting jobs. Unhealthy pressure and competition for students. Money game. Politics. Education as a concept/implementation/system is good. Academics is good only as a concept. It’s implementation and system is always the worst and corrupted."><meta itemprop=datePublished content="2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00"><meta itemprop=dateModified content="2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00"><meta itemprop=wordCount content="305"><meta itemprop=keywords content="Education,Academics,System"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
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 <label class=brand__auth-toggle for=auth-dropdown tabindex=0 aria-label="Account options"><svg viewBox="0 0 24 24" width="12" height="12" fill="currentColor"><path d="M12 12c2.7.0 4.8-2.1 4.8-4.8S14.7 2.4 12 2.4 7.2 4.5 7.2 7.2 9.3 12 12 12zm0 2.4c-3.2.0-9.6 1.6-9.6 4.8v2.4h19.2v-2.4c0-3.2-6.4-4.8-9.6-4.8z"/></svg></label><div class=brand__auth-links><a href=/login/ class="auth-link auth-link--login">Login</a>
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ All updates
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-› <span>What is Education?</span></nav><h1>What is Education?</h1><span class=author></span><br><time class=published-date datetime=2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00>Posted on: March 1, 2026</time><h1 class=heading id=what-is-education>What is Education?<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#what-is-education>#</a></span></h1><p>Education simply means &ldquo;learning&rdquo;. It&rsquo;s a natural process.</p><h3 class=heading id=ratio-of-components-in-education>Ratio of components in Education:<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#ratio-of-components-in-education>#</a></span></h3><p>50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.</p><h3 class=heading id=education-vs-academics>Education vs Academics:<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#education-vs-academics>#</a></span></h3><p>Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.</p><h4 class=heading id=academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays>Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let&rsquo;s see what the system has become nowadays:<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays>#</a></span></h4><ul><li>Wrong ratio of knowledge, skill, experience (knowledge takes about 90%).</li><li>Generalised curriculum for all students.</li></ul><h4 class=heading id=extra-bad>Extra bad:<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#extra-bad>#</a></span></h4><ul><li>Goals are only bound to exams/grades, degree or certifications (year 1088), then getting jobs.</li><li>Unhealthy pressure and competition for students.</li><li>Money game.</li><li>Politics.</li></ul><p>Education as a concept/implementation/system is good.
-Academics is good only as a concept. It&rsquo;s implementation and system is always the worst and corrupted.</p><h3 class=heading id=activities-in-education>Activities in Education:<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#activities-in-education>#</a></span></h3><ul><li><p>Knowledge: Reading, listening, watching, feeling, thinking etc.</p></li><li><p>Understanding: Studying (literary, critical thinking, investigating), researching.</p></li><li><p>Skill: Practicing.</p></li><li><p>Experience: Time spending.</p></li></ul><h3 class=heading id=read-vs-study-vs-research>Read vs Study vs Research:<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#read-vs-study-vs-research>#</a></span></h3><ol><li><p>Read: Reading is about watching or interpreting something/someone to gain knowledge.</p></li><li><p>Study: Studying is about interpreting a topic, going deeper and gaining some conscious understanding out of it.</p></li><li><p>Research: Research is about studying a topic and then contributing to it with changes from your end.</p></li></ol><ul><li><p>Reading relates with knowledge.</p></li><li><p>Studying relates with understanding.</p></li><li><p>Research relates with understanding and contributing.</p></li></ul><h3 class=heading id=knowledge-vs-entertainment>Knowledge vs Entertainment:<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#knowledge-vs-entertainment>#</a></span></h3><ul><li>Activities that are done for Knowledge/Understanding (reading, watching, listening, studying etc.) can also be done for Entertainment and vice versa.</li></ul><p>Example:</p><ol><li>The first book was to provide Knowledge/Understanding, but later books became a source of Entertainment (fiction).</li><li>Videos can be used for both Knowledge/Understanding and Entertainment purposes. For example, for Knowledge/Understanding, there are documentaries, tutorial videos etc. For Entertainment, there are movies, funny videos etc.</li></ol><ul><li>All these are taken from my notes, all of which I like to write and think about deeply.</li></ul><div><div>Tags:</div><ul><li><a href=/tags/education/>Education</a></li><li><a href=/tags/academics/>Academics</a></li><li><a href=/tags/system/>System</a></li></ul></div><div><div>Categories:</div><ul><li><a href=/categories/philosophy/>Philosophy</a></li></ul></div><section class=comments id=comments><h2 class=comments__title>Comments</h2><div id=comments-list class=comments__list></div></section><script>(function(){var n="https://backend.freedoms4.org/comments.php",o='"/blog/what-is-education/"',i=localStorage.getItem("f4_username"),a=!1,e=document.getElementById("comments-list");function t(e){return e.replace(/&/g,"&amp;").replace(/</g,"&lt;").replace(/>/g,"&gt;").replace(/"/g,"&quot;")}function l(e){var n=new Date(e),t=Math.floor((Date.now()-n)/1e3);return t<60?"just now":t<3600?Math.floor(t/60)+"m ago":t<86400?Math.floor(t/3600)+"h ago":Math.floor(t/86400)+"d ago"}function r(e,n,s){var i,a,r,c,o=document.createElement("div");return o.className="comment-form",o.innerHTML='<textarea class="comment-form__input" placeholder="'+t(e)+'" rows="4" maxlength="2000" style="resize:none;width:100%;"></textarea><div class="comment-form__footer"><span class="comment-form__counter">0 / 2000</span><button class="comment-form__submit">'+t(n)+'</button></div><div class="comment-form__error"></div>',i=o.querySelector("textarea"),c=o.querySelector(".comment-form__counter"),a=o.querySelector(".comment-form__error"),r=o.querySelector(".comment-form__submit"),i.addEventListener("input",function(){c.textContent=i.value.length+" / 2000"}),r.addEventListener("click",function(){var e=i.value.trim();if(!e){a.textContent="Comment cannot be empty.";return}a.textContent="",r.disabled=!0,s(e,function(e){r.disabled=!1,e?a.textContent=e:(i.value="",c.textContent="0 / 2000")})}),o}function c(e,d){var h,m,f,p,g,v,b,j,y,u=document.createElement("div");return u.className="comment"+(d>0?" comment--reply":""),u.dataset.id=e.id,m=e.body===null,b=e.deleted_label||"deleted by user",j=m?'<span class="comment__deleted">['+t(b)+"]</span>":'<p class="comment__body">'+t(e.body)+"</p>",f="",!m&&(e.is_own||a)&&(f+='<button class="comment__action comment__action--delete" data-id="'+e.id+'">Delete</button>'),i&&!m&&(f+='<button class="comment__action comment__action--reply" data-id="'+e.id+'">Reply</button>'),u.innerHTML='<div class="comment__meta"><span class="comment__author">'+t(e.username)+'</span><span class="comment__time">'+l(e.created_at)+"</span>"+(f?'<span class="comment__actions">'+f+"</span>":"")+"</div>"+j+'<div class="comment__reply-form"></div><div class="comment__replies"></div>',h=u.querySelector(".comment__action--delete"),h&&h.addEventListener("click",function(){if(!confirm("Delete this comment?"))return;h.disabled=!0,fetch(n,{method:"POST",headers:{"Content-Type":"application/json"},credentials:"include",body:JSON.stringify({action:"delete",comment_id:e.id,deleted_by_owner:e.username===i})}).then(function(e){return e.json()}).then(function(e){e.success?s():(h.disabled=!1,alert(e.message||"Failed to delete."))}).catch(function(){h.disabled=!1,alert("Network error.")})}),g=u.querySelector(".comment__action--reply"),p=u.querySelector(".comment__reply-form"),g&&g.addEventListener("click",function(){if(p.children.length){p.innerHTML="";return}var t=r("Write a reply…","Reply",function(t,i){fetch(n,{method:"POST",headers:{"Content-Type":"application/json"},credentials:"include",body:JSON.stringify({action:"reply",post_id:o,parent_id:e.id,body:t})}).then(function(e){return e.json()}).then(function(e){e.success?(i(null),p.innerHTML="",s()):i(e.message||"Failed to post reply.")}).catch(function(){i("Network error.")})});p.appendChild(t)}),y=u.querySelector(".comment__replies"),m||(v=Array.isArray(e.replies)?e.replies:Object.values(e.replies||{}),v.length&&v.forEach(function(e){y.appendChild(c(e,d+1))})),u}function s(){fetch(n+"?action=get&post_id="+encodeURIComponent(o),{credentials:"include"}).then(function(e){return e.json()}).then(function(t){if(e.innerHTML="",!t.success){e.innerHTML='<p class="comments__error">Failed to load comments.</p>';return}if(a=!!t.is_admin,i=t.logged_in?t.username||null:null,!t.logged_in&&localStorage.getItem("f4_username")&&(localStorage.removeItem("f4_username"),localStorage.removeItem("f4_login_time"),localStorage.removeItem("f4_session_fails")),t.comments.length)t.comments.forEach(function(t){e.appendChild(c(t,0))});else{var l,u,d=document.createElement("p");d.className="comments__empty",d.textContent="No comments yet. 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+› <span>What is Education?</span></nav><h1>What is Education?</h1><span class=author></span><br><time class=published-date datetime=2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00>Posted on: March 1, 2026</time><h1 class=heading id=what-is-education>What is Education?</h1><p>Education simply means &ldquo;learning&rdquo;. It&rsquo;s a natural process.</p><h3 class=heading id=ratio-of-components-in-education>Ratio of components in Education:</h3><p>50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.</p><h3 class=heading id=education-vs-academics>Education vs Academics:</h3><p>Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.</p><h4 class=heading id=academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays>Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let&rsquo;s see what the system has become nowadays:</h4><ul><li>Wrong ratio of knowledge, skill, experience (knowledge takes about 90%).</li><li>Generalised curriculum for all students.</li></ul><h4 class=heading id=extra-bad>Extra bad:</h4><ul><li>Goals are only bound to exams/grades, degree or certifications (year 1088), then getting jobs.</li><li>Unhealthy pressure and competition for students.</li><li>Money game.</li><li>Politics.</li></ul><p>Education as a concept/implementation/system is good.
+Academics is good only as a concept. It&rsquo;s implementation and system is always the worst and corrupted.</p><h3 class=heading id=activities-in-education>Activities in Education:</h3><ul><li><p>Knowledge: Reading, listening, watching, feeling, thinking etc.</p></li><li><p>Understanding: Studying (literary, critical thinking, investigating), researching.</p></li><li><p>Skill: Practicing.</p></li><li><p>Experience: Time spending.</p></li></ul><h3 class=heading id=read-vs-study-vs-research>Read vs Study vs Research:</h3><ol><li><p>Read: Reading is about watching or interpreting something/someone to gain knowledge.</p></li><li><p>Study: Studying is about interpreting a topic, going deeper and gaining some conscious understanding out of it.</p></li><li><p>Research: Research is about studying a topic and then contributing to it with changes from your end.</p></li></ol><ul><li><p>Reading relates with knowledge.</p></li><li><p>Studying relates with understanding.</p></li><li><p>Research relates with understanding and contributing.</p></li></ul><h3 class=heading id=knowledge-vs-entertainment>Knowledge vs Entertainment:</h3><ul><li>Activities that are done for Knowledge/Understanding (reading, watching, listening, studying etc.) can also be done for Entertainment and vice versa.</li></ul><p>Example:</p><ol><li>The first book was to provide Knowledge/Understanding, but later books became a source of Entertainment (fiction).</li><li>Videos can be used for both Knowledge/Understanding and Entertainment purposes. For example, for Knowledge/Understanding, there are documentaries, tutorial videos etc. For Entertainment, there are movies, funny videos etc.</li></ol><ul><li>All these are taken from my notes, all of which I like to write and think about deeply.</li></ul><div><div>Tags:</div><ul><li><a href=/tags/education/>Education</a></li><li><a href=/tags/academics/>Academics</a></li><li><a href=/tags/system/>System</a></li></ul></div><div><div>Categories:</div><ul><li><a href=/categories/philosophy/>Philosophy</a></li></ul></div><section class=comments id=comments><h2 class=comments__title>Comments</h2><div id=comments-list class=comments__list></div></section><script>(function(){var n="https://backend.freedoms4.org/comments.php",o='"/blog/what-is-education/"',i=localStorage.getItem("f4_username"),a=!1,e=document.getElementById("comments-list");function t(e){return e.replace(/&/g,"&amp;").replace(/</g,"&lt;").replace(/>/g,"&gt;").replace(/"/g,"&quot;")}function l(e){var n=new Date(e),t=Math.floor((Date.now()-n)/1e3);return t<60?"just now":t<3600?Math.floor(t/60)+"m ago":t<86400?Math.floor(t/3600)+"h ago":Math.floor(t/86400)+"d ago"}function r(e,n,s){var i,a,r,c,o=document.createElement("div");return o.className="comment-form",o.innerHTML='<textarea class="comment-form__input" placeholder="'+t(e)+'" rows="4" maxlength="2000" style="resize:none;width:100%;"></textarea><div class="comment-form__footer"><span class="comment-form__counter">0 / 2000</span><button class="comment-form__submit">'+t(n)+'</button></div><div class="comment-form__error"></div>',i=o.querySelector("textarea"),c=o.querySelector(".comment-form__counter"),a=o.querySelector(".comment-form__error"),r=o.querySelector(".comment-form__submit"),i.addEventListener("input",function(){c.textContent=i.value.length+" / 2000"}),r.addEventListener("click",function(){var e=i.value.trim();if(!e){a.textContent="Comment cannot be empty.";return}a.textContent="",r.disabled=!0,s(e,function(e){r.disabled=!1,e?a.textContent=e:(i.value="",c.textContent="0 / 2000")})}),o}function c(e,d){var h,m,f,p,g,v,b,j,y,u=document.createElement("div");return u.className="comment"+(d>0?" comment--reply":""),u.dataset.id=e.id,m=e.body===null,b=e.deleted_label||"deleted by user",j=m?'<span class="comment__deleted">['+t(b)+"]</span>":'<p class="comment__body">'+t(e.body)+"</p>",f="",!m&&(e.is_own||a)&&(f+='<button class="comment__action comment__action--delete" data-id="'+e.id+'">Delete</button>'),i&&!m&&(f+='<button class="comment__action comment__action--reply" data-id="'+e.id+'">Reply</button>'),u.innerHTML='<div class="comment__meta"><span class="comment__author">'+t(e.username)+'</span><span class="comment__time">'+l(e.created_at)+"</span>"+(f?'<span class="comment__actions">'+f+"</span>":"")+"</div>"+j+'<div class="comment__reply-form"></div><div class="comment__replies"></div>',h=u.querySelector(".comment__action--delete"),h&&h.addEventListener("click",function(){if(!confirm("Delete this comment?"))return;h.disabled=!0,fetch(n,{method:"POST",headers:{"Content-Type":"application/json"},credentials:"include",body:JSON.stringify({action:"delete",comment_id:e.id,deleted_by_owner:e.username===i})}).then(function(e){return e.json()}).then(function(e){e.success?s():(h.disabled=!1,alert(e.message||"Failed to delete."))}).catch(function(){h.disabled=!1,alert("Network error.")})}),g=u.querySelector(".comment__action--reply"),p=u.querySelector(".comment__reply-form"),g&&g.addEventListener("click",function(){if(p.children.length){p.innerHTML="";return}var t=r("Write a reply…","Reply",function(t,i){fetch(n,{method:"POST",headers:{"Content-Type":"application/json"},credentials:"include",body:JSON.stringify({action:"reply",post_id:o,parent_id:e.id,body:t})}).then(function(e){return e.json()}).then(function(e){e.success?(i(null),p.innerHTML="",s()):i(e.message||"Failed to post reply.")}).catch(function(){i("Network error.")})});p.appendChild(t)}),y=u.querySelector(".comment__replies"),m||(v=Array.isArray(e.replies)?e.replies:Object.values(e.replies||{}),v.length&&v.forEach(function(e){y.appendChild(c(e,d+1))})),u}function s(){fetch(n+"?action=get&post_id="+encodeURIComponent(o),{credentials:"include"}).then(function(e){return e.json()}).then(function(t){if(e.innerHTML="",!t.success){e.innerHTML='<p class="comments__error">Failed to load comments.</p>';return}if(a=!!t.is_admin,i=t.logged_in?t.username||null:null,!t.logged_in&&localStorage.getItem("f4_username")&&(localStorage.removeItem("f4_username"),localStorage.removeItem("f4_login_time"),localStorage.removeItem("f4_session_fails")),t.comments.length)t.comments.forEach(function(t){e.appendChild(c(t,0))});else{var l,u,d=document.createElement("p");d.className="comments__empty",d.textContent="No comments yet. 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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/docs/categories/philosophy/index.xml b/docs/categories/philosophy/index.xml
index 4340608..18622d0 100644
--- a/docs/categories/philosophy/index.xml
+++ b/docs/categories/philosophy/index.xml
@@ -1,21 +1,16 @@
-<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="yes"?><rss version="2.0" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom"><channel><title>Philosophy on Freedoms4</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/categories/philosophy/</link><description>Recent content in Philosophy on Freedoms4</description><generator>Hugo</generator><language>en-us</language><managingEditor>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</managingEditor><webMaster>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</webMaster><lastBuildDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://freedoms4.org/categories/philosophy/index.xml" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><item><title>What is Education?</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</link><pubDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</pubDate><author>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</author><guid>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</guid><description>&lt;h1 class="heading" id="what-is-education"&gt;
- What is Education?&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#what-is-education"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;p&gt;Education simply means &amp;ldquo;learning&amp;rdquo;. It&amp;rsquo;s a natural process.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h3 class="heading" id="ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;
- Ratio of components in Education:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h3 class="heading" id="education-vs-academics"&gt;
- Education vs Academics:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#education-vs-academics"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h4 class="heading" id="academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;
- Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let&amp;rsquo;s see what the system has become nowadays:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;ul&gt;
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="yes"?><rss version="2.0" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom"><channel><title>Philosophy on Freedoms4</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/categories/philosophy/</link><description>Recent content in Philosophy on Freedoms4</description><generator>Hugo</generator><language>en-us</language><managingEditor>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</managingEditor><webMaster>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</webMaster><lastBuildDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://freedoms4.org/categories/philosophy/index.xml" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><item><title>What is Education?</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</link><pubDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</pubDate><author>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</author><guid>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</guid><description>&lt;h1 class="heading" id="what-is-education"&gt;What is Education?&lt;/h1&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;Education simply means &amp;ldquo;learning&amp;rdquo;. It&amp;rsquo;s a natural process.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h3 class="heading" id="ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;Ratio of components in Education:&lt;/h3&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h3 class="heading" id="education-vs-academics"&gt;Education vs Academics:&lt;/h3&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h4 class="heading" id="academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let&amp;rsquo;s see what the system has become nowadays:&lt;/h4&gt;
+&lt;ul&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Wrong ratio of knowledge, skill, experience (knowledge takes about 90%).&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Generalised curriculum for all students.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;/ul&gt;
-&lt;h4 class="heading" id="extra-bad"&gt;
- Extra bad:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#extra-bad"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;ul&gt;
+&lt;h4 class="heading" id="extra-bad"&gt;Extra bad:&lt;/h4&gt;
+&lt;ul&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Goals are only bound to exams/grades, degree or certifications (year 1088), then getting jobs.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Unhealthy pressure and competition for students.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Money game.&lt;/li&gt;
diff --git a/docs/contact/index.html b/docs/contact/index.html
index e8e5156..37b5f4e 100644
--- a/docs/contact/index.html
+++ b/docs/contact/index.html
@@ -1,16 +1,16 @@
 <!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Contact | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="Admin: hyzen
-Contacts # Email and XMPP: hyzen@freedoms4.org
+Contacts Email and XMPP: hyzen@freedoms4.org
 IRC/Liberachat: hyzen, #freedoms4
-Follow on # Mastodon: hyzen@mastodon.social
+Follow on Mastodon: hyzen@mastodon.social
 Lemmy: hyzen@lemmy.today"><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/contact/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Contact"><meta property="og:description" content="Admin: hyzen
-Contacts # Email and XMPP: hyzen@freedoms4.org
+Contacts Email and XMPP: hyzen@freedoms4.org
 IRC/Liberachat: hyzen, #freedoms4
-Follow on # Mastodon: hyzen@mastodon.social
+Follow on Mastodon: hyzen@mastodon.social
 Lemmy: hyzen@lemmy.today"><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta itemprop=name content="Contact"><meta itemprop=description content="Admin: hyzen
-Contacts # Email and XMPP: hyzen@freedoms4.org
+Contacts Email and XMPP: hyzen@freedoms4.org
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-Follow on # Mastodon: hyzen@mastodon.social
-Lemmy: hyzen@lemmy.today"><meta itemprop=wordCount content="18"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
+Follow on Mastodon: hyzen@mastodon.social
+Lemmy: hyzen@lemmy.today"><meta itemprop=wordCount content="16"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
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@@ -20,6 +20,6 @@ Lemmy: hyzen@lemmy.today"><meta itemprop=wordCount content="18"><link rel=styles
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+Blog posts</button></div></div></div></div><nav class="menu language"><ul class="menu__list language__list"><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/>Home</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/blog/>Blog</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/services/>Services</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/uninotes/>UniNotes</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/contact/>Contact</a></li></ul></nav></header><main class=main><p><strong>Admin:</strong> hyzen</p><h2 class=heading id=contacts>Contacts</h2><p><strong><a href=mailto:hyzen@freedoms4.org>Email</a> and <a href=xmpp:hyzen@freedoms4.org>XMPP</a>:</strong> <a href=mailto:hyzen@freedoms4.org>hyzen@freedoms4.org</a></p><p><strong>IRC/Liberachat:</strong> hyzen, #freedoms4</p><h2 class=heading id=follow-on>Follow on</h2><p><strong><a href=https://mastodon.social/@hyzen>Mastodon</a>:</strong> <a href=mailto:hyzen@mastodon.social>hyzen@mastodon.social</a></p><p><strong>Lemmy:</strong> <a href=mailto:hyzen@lemmy.today>hyzen@lemmy.today</a></p></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/docs/css/custom.css b/docs/css/custom.css
index b8e7196..a841f4b 100644
--- a/docs/css/custom.css
+++ b/docs/css/custom.css
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-   (blog, services, uninotes, homepage), including the theme's
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-.heading .heading__anchor,
-.heading:hover > .heading__anchor {
-	display: none;
-}
diff --git a/docs/index.html b/docs/index.html
index 6f68feb..9110243 100644
--- a/docs/index.html
+++ b/docs/index.html
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta name=generator content="Hugo 0.163.3"><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Home"><meta property="og:description" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="website"><meta itemprop=name content="Home"><meta itemprop=description content="Freedoms4"><meta itemprop=datePublished content="2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00"><meta itemprop=dateModified content="2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00"><meta itemprop=wordCount content="201"><link rel=alternate type=application/rss+xml href=/index.xml title=Freedoms4><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta name=generator content="Hugo 0.163.3"><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Home"><meta property="og:description" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="website"><meta itemprop=name content="Home"><meta itemprop=description content="Freedoms4"><meta itemprop=datePublished content="2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00"><meta itemprop=dateModified content="2026-03-01T18:11:14+00:00"><meta itemprop=wordCount content="197"><link rel=alternate type=application/rss+xml href=/index.xml title=Freedoms4><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
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-Blog posts</button></div></div></div></div><nav class="menu language"><ul class="menu__list language__list"><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/>Home</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/blog/>Blog</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/services/>Services</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/uninotes/>UniNotes</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/contact/>Contact</a></li></ul></nav></header><main class=main><h1 class=heading id=namaste->Namaste 🙏<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#namaste->#</a></span></h1><p style=text-indent:1.185em>My name is <b>hyzen</b>, I'm the founder of this site. This site is my space to write about my views on various subjects and explore ideas that matter to me. I also provide free <a href=/services/>services</a> to the public that may matter to them.</p><h3 class=heading id=on-the-blog-im-writing-about>On the <a href=/blog/>blog</a> I&rsquo;m writing about:<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#on-the-blog-im-writing-about>#</a></span></h3><ul><li><strong>Tech</strong> - Free and Open-Source Software, digital freedom.</li><li><strong>Philosophy</strong> - Reflections on ideas, ethics, meaning, and ways of thinking.</li><li><strong>Communism</strong> - I believe in Marxism. I am committed to the principle of providing internet services in a <b>socialist way</b>. This means creating tools and spaces that prioritize community benefit over profit, and believing in the collective good.</li><li><strong>Politics as a whole</strong> - Commentary on political systems, economics, and social issues.</li></ul><p style=text-indent:1.185em>Beyond theoretical discussions, I may also write about my day-to-day experiences, thoughts, and feelings - the personal reflections that shape my worldview and understanding of the world around me.</p><h3 class=heading id=motive>Motive:<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#motive>#</a></span></h3><p style=text-indent:1.185em>My goal is for everyone who visits this site to leave with something valuable.</p><h3 class=heading id=sites-code>Site&rsquo;s Code:<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#sites-code>#</a></span></h3><p style=text-indent:1.185em>This site is also built with open source tools like Hugo and served freely. If you're interested in the code , you can find its frontend <a href=https://git.freedoms4.org/hyzen/hyzendust.github.io target=_blank rel="noopener noreferrer">here↗</a> and backend <a href=https://git.freedoms4.org/hyzen/freedoms4-backend-public.git target=_blank rel="noopener noreferrer">here↗.</a></p></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
+Blog posts</button></div></div></div></div><nav class="menu language"><ul class="menu__list language__list"><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/>Home</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/blog/>Blog</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/services/>Services</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/uninotes/>UniNotes</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/contact/>Contact</a></li></ul></nav></header><main class=main><h1 class=heading id=namaste->Namaste 🙏</h1><p style=text-indent:1.185em>My name is <b>hyzen</b>, I'm the founder of this site. This site is my space to write about my views on various subjects and explore ideas that matter to me. I also provide free <a href=/services/>services</a> to the public that may matter to them.</p><h3 class=heading id=on-the-blog-im-writing-about>On the <a href=/blog/>blog</a> I&rsquo;m writing about:</h3><ul><li><strong>Tech</strong> - Free and Open-Source Software, digital freedom.</li><li><strong>Philosophy</strong> - Reflections on ideas, ethics, meaning, and ways of thinking.</li><li><strong>Communism</strong> - I believe in Marxism. I am committed to the principle of providing internet services in a <b>socialist way</b>. This means creating tools and spaces that prioritize community benefit over profit, and believing in the collective good.</li><li><strong>Politics as a whole</strong> - Commentary on political systems, economics, and social issues.</li></ul><p style=text-indent:1.185em>Beyond theoretical discussions, I may also write about my day-to-day experiences, thoughts, and feelings - the personal reflections that shape my worldview and understanding of the world around me.</p><h3 class=heading id=motive>Motive:</h3><p style=text-indent:1.185em>My goal is for everyone who visits this site to leave with something valuable.</p><h3 class=heading id=sites-code>Site&rsquo;s Code:</h3><p style=text-indent:1.185em>This site is also built with open source tools like Hugo and served freely. If you're interested in the code , you can find its frontend <a href=https://git.freedoms4.org/hyzen/hyzendust.github.io target=_blank rel="noopener noreferrer">here↗</a> and backend <a href=https://git.freedoms4.org/hyzen/freedoms4-backend-public.git target=_blank rel="noopener noreferrer">here↗.</a></p></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
 <a href=/terms/>Terms and Conditions</a> <a href=/privacy/>Privacy Policy</a>
 <a href=/changelog/>Changelog</a></p><p class=footer__theme-info>Built with <a href=https://gohugo.io>Hugo</a> and based on <a href=https://github.com/CyrusYip/hugo-theme-yue>Yue</a> theme</p></footer><script>(function(){document.querySelectorAll(".menu__item").forEach(function(e){var t=e.querySelector("a");t&&t.getAttribute("href")==="/uninotes/"&&e.classList.add("menu__item--uninotes")})})()</script><script>(function(){var e=document.getElementById("theme-toggle");if(!e)return;function t(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");return e?e:window.matchMedia("(prefers-color-scheme: light)").matches?"light":"dark"}function n(e){document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.setItem("theme",e)}n(t()),e.addEventListener("click",function(){var e=document.documentElement.getAttribute("data-theme")||t();n(e==="dark"?"light":"dark")})})()</script><script>(function(){var t="https://backend.freedoms4.org/auth.php",e=localStorage.getItem("f4_username");if(!e)return;function n(e){var t,n,o,i,a,c,r=document.querySelector(".brand__auth");r&&!r.querySelector(".brand__auth-user")&&(r.classList.add("brand__auth--loggedin"),t=document.createElement("div"),t.className="brand__auth-user",n=document.createElement("button"),n.className="brand__auth-user-btn",n.setAttribute("aria-label","Account menu"),c=document.createElement("span"),c.innerHTML='<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24" width="12" height="12" fill="currentColor"><path d="M12 12c2.7 0 4.8-2.1 4.8-4.8S14.7 2.4 12 2.4 7.2 4.5 7.2 7.2 9.3 12 12 12zm0 2.4c-3.2 0-9.6 1.6-9.6 4.8v2.4h19.2v-2.4c0-3.2-6.4-4.8-9.6-4.8z"/></svg>',n.appendChild(c.firstChild),n.appendChild(document.createTextNode(" "+e)),o=document.createElement("div"),o.className="brand__auth-user-dropdown",i=document.createElement("button"),i.className="brand__auth-user-logout",i.textContent="Log Out",i.addEventListener("click",s),e==="hyzen"&&(a=document.createElement("a"),a.className="brand__auth-user-admin",a.href="/admin/",a.textContent="User Management",o.appendChild(a)),o.appendChild(i),o.appendChild(i),t.appendChild(n),t.appendChild(o),r.appendChild(t),n.addEventListener("click",function(e){e.stopPropagation(),t.classList.toggle("is-open")}),document.addEventListener("click",function(){t.classList.remove("is-open")}))}function s(){fetch(t,{method:"POST",headers:{"Content-Type":"application/json"},credentials:"include",body:JSON.stringify({action:"logout"})}).finally(function(){localStorage.removeItem("f4_username"),localStorage.removeItem("f4_login_time"),localStorage.removeItem("f4_session_fails"),window.location.reload()})}n(e)})()</script><script>(function(){var t,e=document.querySelector(".rss-subscribe");if(!e)return;t=e.querySelector(".rss-subscribe__btn"),t.addEventListener("click",function(t){t.stopPropagation(),e.classList.toggle("is-open")}),document.addEventListener("click",function(t){e.contains(t.target)||e.classList.remove("is-open")}),e.querySelectorAll(".rss-subscribe__item").forEach(function(t){t.addEventListener("click",function(n){n.stopPropagation();var s,o=t.getAttribute("data-rss-url"),a=t.textContent;function i(){t.textContent="Copied!",setTimeout(function(){t.textContent=a,e.classList.remove("is-open")},1200)}try{s=document.createElement("textarea"),s.value=o,s.style.cssText="position:fixed;top:0;left:0;opacity:0;pointer-events:none;",document.body.appendChild(s),s.focus(),s.select(),document.execCommand("copy"),document.body.removeChild(s),i()}catch{navigator.clipboard&&navigator.clipboard.writeText(o).then(i).catch(function(){t.textContent=o})}})})})()</script><script src=/js/session-check.js></script></body></html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/docs/index.xml b/docs/index.xml
index a408e4d..c1883a4 100644
--- a/docs/index.xml
+++ b/docs/index.xml
@@ -13,24 +13,19 @@
  &lt;p&gt;XMPP has been around since 1999, originally called Jabber. It was built as an open and decentralized protocol so that anyone could run their own server and still talk to people on other servers. It works in the same way email works across providers.&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;p&gt;No ads reading your conversations, no algorithm deciding who sees what, no single corporation owning the network or able to shut it off. Just an open standard that's outlasted most of the modern chat apps that came after it.&lt;/p&gt;</description></item><item><title>File Share</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/services/file-share/</link><pubDate>Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000</pubDate><author>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</author><guid>https://freedoms4.org/services/file-share/</guid><description>&lt;p&gt;Visit &lt;a href="https://share.freedoms4.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"&gt;
 share.freedoms4.org↗
-&lt;/a&gt; to quickly upload files and get sharable links.&lt;/p&gt;</description></item><item><title>What is Education?</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</link><pubDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</pubDate><author>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</author><guid>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</guid><description>&lt;h1 class="heading" id="what-is-education"&gt;
- What is Education?&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#what-is-education"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;p&gt;Education simply means &amp;ldquo;learning&amp;rdquo;. It&amp;rsquo;s a natural process.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h3 class="heading" id="ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;
- Ratio of components in Education:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h3 class="heading" id="education-vs-academics"&gt;
- Education vs Academics:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#education-vs-academics"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h4 class="heading" id="academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;
- Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let&amp;rsquo;s see what the system has become nowadays:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;ul&gt;
+&lt;/a&gt; to quickly upload files and get sharable links.&lt;/p&gt;</description></item><item><title>What is Education?</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</link><pubDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</pubDate><author>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</author><guid>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</guid><description>&lt;h1 class="heading" id="what-is-education"&gt;What is Education?&lt;/h1&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;Education simply means &amp;ldquo;learning&amp;rdquo;. It&amp;rsquo;s a natural process.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h3 class="heading" id="ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;Ratio of components in Education:&lt;/h3&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h3 class="heading" id="education-vs-academics"&gt;Education vs Academics:&lt;/h3&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h4 class="heading" id="academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let&amp;rsquo;s see what the system has become nowadays:&lt;/h4&gt;
+&lt;ul&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Wrong ratio of knowledge, skill, experience (knowledge takes about 90%).&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Generalised curriculum for all students.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;/ul&gt;
-&lt;h4 class="heading" id="extra-bad"&gt;
- Extra bad:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#extra-bad"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;ul&gt;
+&lt;h4 class="heading" id="extra-bad"&gt;Extra bad:&lt;/h4&gt;
+&lt;ul&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Goals are only bound to exams/grades, degree or certifications (year 1088), then getting jobs.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Unhealthy pressure and competition for students.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Money game.&lt;/li&gt;
diff --git a/docs/privacy/index.html b/docs/privacy/index.html
index e5336b9..afd64ae 100644
--- a/docs/privacy/index.html
+++ b/docs/privacy/index.html
@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
 <!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Privacy Policy | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="Last Updated: June 14, 2026
 We respect your privacy and are committed to protecting your personal information. This “Privacy Policy” explains what information we collect, how we use it, and the choices available to you when using our services.
 This service is operated as a non-profit initiative. We collect only the information reasonably necessary to provide and maintain our services.
-1. Information We Collect # Account Information # When you create an account, we will collect:"><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/privacy/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Privacy Policy"><meta property="og:description" content="Last Updated: June 14, 2026
+1. Information We Collect Account Information When you create an account, we will collect:"><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/privacy/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Privacy Policy"><meta property="og:description" content="Last Updated: June 14, 2026
 We respect your privacy and are committed to protecting your personal information. This “Privacy Policy” explains what information we collect, how we use it, and the choices available to you when using our services.
 This service is operated as a non-profit initiative. We collect only the information reasonably necessary to provide and maintain our services.
-1. Information We Collect # Account Information # When you create an account, we will collect:"><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="website"><meta itemprop=name content="Privacy Policy"><meta itemprop=description content="Last Updated: June 14, 2026
+1. Information We Collect Account Information When you create an account, we will collect:"><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="website"><meta itemprop=name content="Privacy Policy"><meta itemprop=description content="Last Updated: June 14, 2026
 We respect your privacy and are committed to protecting your personal information. This “Privacy Policy” explains what information we collect, how we use it, and the choices available to you when using our services.
 This service is operated as a non-profit initiative. We collect only the information reasonably necessary to provide and maintain our services.
-1. Information We Collect # Account Information # When you create an account, we will collect:"><meta itemprop=wordCount content="524"><link rel=alternate type=application/rss+xml href=/privacy/index.xml title=Freedoms4><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
+1. Information We Collect Account Information When you create an account, we will collect:"><meta itemprop=wordCount content="511"><link rel=alternate type=application/rss+xml href=/privacy/index.xml title=Freedoms4><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
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 <label class=brand__auth-toggle for=auth-dropdown tabindex=0 aria-label="Account options"><svg viewBox="0 0 24 24" width="12" height="12" fill="currentColor"><path d="M12 12c2.7.0 4.8-2.1 4.8-4.8S14.7 2.4 12 2.4 7.2 4.5 7.2 7.2 9.3 12 12 12zm0 2.4c-3.2.0-9.6 1.6-9.6 4.8v2.4h19.2v-2.4c0-3.2-6.4-4.8-9.6-4.8z"/></svg></label><div class=brand__auth-links><a href=/login/ class="auth-link auth-link--login">Login</a>
@@ -17,6 +17,6 @@ This service is operated as a non-profit initiative. We collect only the informa
 All updates
 </button>
 <button class=rss-subscribe__item data-rss-url=https://freedoms4.org/blog/index.xml>
-Blog posts</button></div></div></div></div><nav class="menu language"><ul class="menu__list language__list"><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/>Home</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/blog/>Blog</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/services/>Services</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/uninotes/>UniNotes</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/contact/>Contact</a></li></ul></nav></header><main class=main><h1>Privacy Policy</h1><p><strong>Last Updated: June 14, 2026</strong></p><p>We respect your privacy and are committed to protecting your personal information. This &ldquo;Privacy Policy&rdquo; explains what information we collect, how we use it, and the choices available to you when using our services.</p><p>This service is operated as a non-profit initiative. We collect only the information reasonably necessary to provide and maintain our services.</p><h2 class=heading id=1-information-we-collect>1. Information We Collect<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#1-information-we-collect>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=account-information>Account Information<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#account-information>#</a></span></h3><p>When you create an account, we will collect:</p><ul><li>Username.</li><li>Email address.</li><li>Password (stored in hashed form).</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=technical-information>Technical Information<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#technical-information>#</a></span></h3><p>When you use our services, we may automatically collect:</p><ul><li>IP address.</li><li>Connection logs.</li><li>Service usage information.</li><li>Security and authentication logs.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=2-services-email-and-xmpp>2. Services: Email and XMPP<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#2-services-email-and-xmpp>#</a></span></h2><p>To provide <a href=https://freedoms4.org/services/email-account/>Email</a> and <a href=http://localhost:1313/services/xmpp-account/>XMPP</a> services, we may store related metadata necessary for message delivery and system operation.</p><p>We do not access, review, or inspect the contents of users&rsquo; emails or messages.</p><h2 class=heading id=3-service-file-share-or-pastebin>3. Service: File Share or Pastebin<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#3-service-file-share-or-pastebin>#</a></span></h2><p>Files and pastebins uploaded through our <a href=https://freedoms4.org/services/file-share/>File Share</a> service (web or command-line) are stored unencrypted and are automatically deleted within 24 hours of upload. We strongly recommend that you do not upload sensitive, confidential, or personal information through this service.</p><p>We do not access, review, or inspect uploaded content except when reasonably necessary to investigate abuse and enforce our policies.</p><h2 class=heading id=4-cookies-and-similar-technologies>4. Cookies and Similar Technologies<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#4-cookies-and-similar-technologies>#</a></span></h2><p>We may use cookies or similar technologies to:</p><ul><li>Maintain user sessions.</li><li>Remember preferences.</li></ul><p>You may control cookies through your browser settings.</p><h2 class=heading id=5-how-we-use-information>5. How We Use Information<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#5-how-we-use-information>#</a></span></h2><p>We use collected information to:</p><ul><li>Provide and maintain our services.</li><li>Authenticate users and secure accounts.</li><li>Prevent abuse, spam, fraud, and unauthorized access.</li><li>Troubleshoot technical issues.</li></ul><p>We do not sell your personal information.</p><h2 class=heading id=6-sharing-of-information>6. Sharing of Information<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#6-sharing-of-information>#</a></span></h2><p>We do not sell, rent, or trade personal information.</p><p>We may disclose information:</p><ul><li>When required by applicable law.</li><li>To protect the security and integrity of our services.</li><li>To investigate abuse, fraud, or security incidents.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=7-data-retention>7. Data Retention<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#7-data-retention>#</a></span></h2><p>We may retain information only as long as necessary to provide services and enforce our policies.</p><p>You may <a href=https://freedoms4.org/contact/>request</a> account deletion at any time. Following deletion, only registration-related records may be retained for administrative purposes, while all other data will be permanently erased.</p><h2 class=heading id=8-your-rights>8. Your Rights<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#8-your-rights>#</a></span></h2><p>Depending on your location and applicable laws, you may have the right to:</p><ul><li>Access your personal information.</li><li>Correct inaccurate information.</li><li>Request deletion of your information.</li><li>Object to certain processing activities.</li><li>Request a copy of your data.</li></ul><p>To exercise these rights, please <a href=https://freedoms4.org/contact/>contact</a> us.</p><h2 class=heading id=9-third-party-services>9. Third-Party Services<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#9-third-party-services>#</a></span></h2><p>Our services may contain links to third-party websites or services. We are not responsible for the privacy practices of those third parties.</p><p>We encourage you to review their privacy policies before providing personal information.</p><h2 class=heading id=10-childrens-privacy>10. Children&rsquo;s Privacy<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#10-childrens-privacy>#</a></span></h2><p>Our services are not intended for children under the age required by applicable law without parental consent. We do not knowingly collect personal information from children in violation of applicable laws.</p><h2 class=heading id=11-changes-to-this-privacy-policy>11. Changes to This Privacy Policy<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#11-changes-to-this-privacy-policy>#</a></span></h2><p>We may update these policies from time to time. Updated versions will be posted on this page with a revised &ldquo;Last Updated&rdquo; date.</p><p><strong>If you have any questions about any policy, please <a href=https://freedoms4.org/contact/>contact</a> us.</strong></p></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
+Blog posts</button></div></div></div></div><nav class="menu language"><ul class="menu__list language__list"><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/>Home</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/blog/>Blog</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/services/>Services</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/uninotes/>UniNotes</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/contact/>Contact</a></li></ul></nav></header><main class=main><h1>Privacy Policy</h1><p><strong>Last Updated: June 14, 2026</strong></p><p>We respect your privacy and are committed to protecting your personal information. This &ldquo;Privacy Policy&rdquo; explains what information we collect, how we use it, and the choices available to you when using our services.</p><p>This service is operated as a non-profit initiative. We collect only the information reasonably necessary to provide and maintain our services.</p><h2 class=heading id=1-information-we-collect>1. Information We Collect</h2><h3 class=heading id=account-information>Account Information</h3><p>When you create an account, we will collect:</p><ul><li>Username.</li><li>Email address.</li><li>Password (stored in hashed form).</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=technical-information>Technical Information</h3><p>When you use our services, we may automatically collect:</p><ul><li>IP address.</li><li>Connection logs.</li><li>Service usage information.</li><li>Security and authentication logs.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=2-services-email-and-xmpp>2. Services: Email and XMPP</h2><p>To provide <a href=https://freedoms4.org/services/email-account/>Email</a> and <a href=http://localhost:1313/services/xmpp-account/>XMPP</a> services, we may store related metadata necessary for message delivery and system operation.</p><p>We do not access, review, or inspect the contents of users&rsquo; emails or messages.</p><h2 class=heading id=3-service-file-share-or-pastebin>3. Service: File Share or Pastebin</h2><p>Files and pastebins uploaded through our <a href=https://freedoms4.org/services/file-share/>File Share</a> service (web or command-line) are stored unencrypted and are automatically deleted within 24 hours of upload. We strongly recommend that you do not upload sensitive, confidential, or personal information through this service.</p><p>We do not access, review, or inspect uploaded content except when reasonably necessary to investigate abuse and enforce our policies.</p><h2 class=heading id=4-cookies-and-similar-technologies>4. Cookies and Similar Technologies</h2><p>We may use cookies or similar technologies to:</p><ul><li>Maintain user sessions.</li><li>Remember preferences.</li></ul><p>You may control cookies through your browser settings.</p><h2 class=heading id=5-how-we-use-information>5. How We Use Information</h2><p>We use collected information to:</p><ul><li>Provide and maintain our services.</li><li>Authenticate users and secure accounts.</li><li>Prevent abuse, spam, fraud, and unauthorized access.</li><li>Troubleshoot technical issues.</li></ul><p>We do not sell your personal information.</p><h2 class=heading id=6-sharing-of-information>6. Sharing of Information</h2><p>We do not sell, rent, or trade personal information.</p><p>We may disclose information:</p><ul><li>When required by applicable law.</li><li>To protect the security and integrity of our services.</li><li>To investigate abuse, fraud, or security incidents.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=7-data-retention>7. Data Retention</h2><p>We may retain information only as long as necessary to provide services and enforce our policies.</p><p>You may <a href=https://freedoms4.org/contact/>request</a> account deletion at any time. Following deletion, only registration-related records may be retained for administrative purposes, while all other data will be permanently erased.</p><h2 class=heading id=8-your-rights>8. Your Rights</h2><p>Depending on your location and applicable laws, you may have the right to:</p><ul><li>Access your personal information.</li><li>Correct inaccurate information.</li><li>Request deletion of your information.</li><li>Object to certain processing activities.</li><li>Request a copy of your data.</li></ul><p>To exercise these rights, please <a href=https://freedoms4.org/contact/>contact</a> us.</p><h2 class=heading id=9-third-party-services>9. Third-Party Services</h2><p>Our services may contain links to third-party websites or services. We are not responsible for the privacy practices of those third parties.</p><p>We encourage you to review their privacy policies before providing personal information.</p><h2 class=heading id=10-childrens-privacy>10. Children&rsquo;s Privacy</h2><p>Our services are not intended for children under the age required by applicable law without parental consent. We do not knowingly collect personal information from children in violation of applicable laws.</p><h2 class=heading id=11-changes-to-this-privacy-policy>11. Changes to This Privacy Policy</h2><p>We may update these policies from time to time. Updated versions will be posted on this page with a revised &ldquo;Last Updated&rdquo; date.</p><p><strong>If you have any questions about any policy, please <a href=https://freedoms4.org/contact/>contact</a> us.</strong></p></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
 <a href=/terms/>Terms and Conditions</a> <a href=/privacy/>Privacy Policy</a>
 <a href=/changelog/>Changelog</a></p><p class=footer__theme-info>Built with <a href=https://gohugo.io>Hugo</a> and based on <a href=https://github.com/CyrusYip/hugo-theme-yue>Yue</a> theme</p></footer><script>(function(){document.querySelectorAll(".menu__item").forEach(function(e){var t=e.querySelector("a");t&&t.getAttribute("href")==="/uninotes/"&&e.classList.add("menu__item--uninotes")})})()</script><script>(function(){var e=document.getElementById("theme-toggle");if(!e)return;function t(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");return e?e:window.matchMedia("(prefers-color-scheme: light)").matches?"light":"dark"}function n(e){document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.setItem("theme",e)}n(t()),e.addEventListener("click",function(){var e=document.documentElement.getAttribute("data-theme")||t();n(e==="dark"?"light":"dark")})})()</script><script>(function(){var t="https://backend.freedoms4.org/auth.php",e=localStorage.getItem("f4_username");if(!e)return;function n(e){var t,n,o,i,a,c,r=document.querySelector(".brand__auth");r&&!r.querySelector(".brand__auth-user")&&(r.classList.add("brand__auth--loggedin"),t=document.createElement("div"),t.className="brand__auth-user",n=document.createElement("button"),n.className="brand__auth-user-btn",n.setAttribute("aria-label","Account menu"),c=document.createElement("span"),c.innerHTML='<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24" width="12" height="12" fill="currentColor"><path d="M12 12c2.7 0 4.8-2.1 4.8-4.8S14.7 2.4 12 2.4 7.2 4.5 7.2 7.2 9.3 12 12 12zm0 2.4c-3.2 0-9.6 1.6-9.6 4.8v2.4h19.2v-2.4c0-3.2-6.4-4.8-9.6-4.8z"/></svg>',n.appendChild(c.firstChild),n.appendChild(document.createTextNode(" "+e)),o=document.createElement("div"),o.className="brand__auth-user-dropdown",i=document.createElement("button"),i.className="brand__auth-user-logout",i.textContent="Log Out",i.addEventListener("click",s),e==="hyzen"&&(a=document.createElement("a"),a.className="brand__auth-user-admin",a.href="/admin/",a.textContent="User Management",o.appendChild(a)),o.appendChild(i),o.appendChild(i),t.appendChild(n),t.appendChild(o),r.appendChild(t),n.addEventListener("click",function(e){e.stopPropagation(),t.classList.toggle("is-open")}),document.addEventListener("click",function(){t.classList.remove("is-open")}))}function s(){fetch(t,{method:"POST",headers:{"Content-Type":"application/json"},credentials:"include",body:JSON.stringify({action:"logout"})}).finally(function(){localStorage.removeItem("f4_username"),localStorage.removeItem("f4_login_time"),localStorage.removeItem("f4_session_fails"),window.location.reload()})}n(e)})()</script><script>(function(){var t,e=document.querySelector(".rss-subscribe");if(!e)return;t=e.querySelector(".rss-subscribe__btn"),t.addEventListener("click",function(t){t.stopPropagation(),e.classList.toggle("is-open")}),document.addEventListener("click",function(t){e.contains(t.target)||e.classList.remove("is-open")}),e.querySelectorAll(".rss-subscribe__item").forEach(function(t){t.addEventListener("click",function(n){n.stopPropagation();var s,o=t.getAttribute("data-rss-url"),a=t.textContent;function i(){t.textContent="Copied!",setTimeout(function(){t.textContent=a,e.classList.remove("is-open")},1200)}try{s=document.createElement("textarea"),s.value=o,s.style.cssText="position:fixed;top:0;left:0;opacity:0;pointer-events:none;",document.body.appendChild(s),s.focus(),s.select(),document.execCommand("copy"),document.body.removeChild(s),i()}catch{navigator.clipboard&&navigator.clipboard.writeText(o).then(i).catch(function(){t.textContent=o})}})})})()</script><script src=/js/session-check.js></script></body></html>
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diff --git a/docs/tags/academics/index.xml b/docs/tags/academics/index.xml
index 2702772..4275f4d 100644
--- a/docs/tags/academics/index.xml
+++ b/docs/tags/academics/index.xml
@@ -1,21 +1,16 @@
-<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="yes"?><rss version="2.0" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom"><channel><title>Academics on Freedoms4</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/tags/academics/</link><description>Recent content in Academics on Freedoms4</description><generator>Hugo</generator><language>en-us</language><managingEditor>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</managingEditor><webMaster>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</webMaster><lastBuildDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://freedoms4.org/tags/academics/index.xml" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><item><title>What is Education?</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</link><pubDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</pubDate><author>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</author><guid>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</guid><description>&lt;h1 class="heading" id="what-is-education"&gt;
- What is Education?&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#what-is-education"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;p&gt;Education simply means &amp;ldquo;learning&amp;rdquo;. It&amp;rsquo;s a natural process.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h3 class="heading" id="ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;
- Ratio of components in Education:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h3 class="heading" id="education-vs-academics"&gt;
- Education vs Academics:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#education-vs-academics"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h4 class="heading" id="academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;
- Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let&amp;rsquo;s see what the system has become nowadays:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;ul&gt;
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="yes"?><rss version="2.0" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom"><channel><title>Academics on Freedoms4</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/tags/academics/</link><description>Recent content in Academics on Freedoms4</description><generator>Hugo</generator><language>en-us</language><managingEditor>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</managingEditor><webMaster>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</webMaster><lastBuildDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://freedoms4.org/tags/academics/index.xml" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><item><title>What is Education?</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</link><pubDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</pubDate><author>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</author><guid>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</guid><description>&lt;h1 class="heading" id="what-is-education"&gt;What is Education?&lt;/h1&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;Education simply means &amp;ldquo;learning&amp;rdquo;. It&amp;rsquo;s a natural process.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h3 class="heading" id="ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;Ratio of components in Education:&lt;/h3&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h3 class="heading" id="education-vs-academics"&gt;Education vs Academics:&lt;/h3&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h4 class="heading" id="academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let&amp;rsquo;s see what the system has become nowadays:&lt;/h4&gt;
+&lt;ul&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Wrong ratio of knowledge, skill, experience (knowledge takes about 90%).&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Generalised curriculum for all students.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;/ul&gt;
-&lt;h4 class="heading" id="extra-bad"&gt;
- Extra bad:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#extra-bad"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;ul&gt;
+&lt;h4 class="heading" id="extra-bad"&gt;Extra bad:&lt;/h4&gt;
+&lt;ul&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Goals are only bound to exams/grades, degree or certifications (year 1088), then getting jobs.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Unhealthy pressure and competition for students.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Money game.&lt;/li&gt;
diff --git a/docs/tags/education/index.xml b/docs/tags/education/index.xml
index 94f53a2..9b1e506 100644
--- a/docs/tags/education/index.xml
+++ b/docs/tags/education/index.xml
@@ -1,21 +1,16 @@
-<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="yes"?><rss version="2.0" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom"><channel><title>Education on Freedoms4</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/tags/education/</link><description>Recent content in Education on Freedoms4</description><generator>Hugo</generator><language>en-us</language><managingEditor>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</managingEditor><webMaster>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</webMaster><lastBuildDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://freedoms4.org/tags/education/index.xml" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><item><title>What is Education?</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</link><pubDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</pubDate><author>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</author><guid>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</guid><description>&lt;h1 class="heading" id="what-is-education"&gt;
- What is Education?&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#what-is-education"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;p&gt;Education simply means &amp;ldquo;learning&amp;rdquo;. It&amp;rsquo;s a natural process.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h3 class="heading" id="ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;
- Ratio of components in Education:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h3 class="heading" id="education-vs-academics"&gt;
- Education vs Academics:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#education-vs-academics"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h4 class="heading" id="academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;
- Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let&amp;rsquo;s see what the system has become nowadays:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;ul&gt;
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="yes"?><rss version="2.0" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom"><channel><title>Education on Freedoms4</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/tags/education/</link><description>Recent content in Education on Freedoms4</description><generator>Hugo</generator><language>en-us</language><managingEditor>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</managingEditor><webMaster>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</webMaster><lastBuildDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://freedoms4.org/tags/education/index.xml" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><item><title>What is Education?</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</link><pubDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</pubDate><author>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</author><guid>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</guid><description>&lt;h1 class="heading" id="what-is-education"&gt;What is Education?&lt;/h1&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;Education simply means &amp;ldquo;learning&amp;rdquo;. It&amp;rsquo;s a natural process.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h3 class="heading" id="ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;Ratio of components in Education:&lt;/h3&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h3 class="heading" id="education-vs-academics"&gt;Education vs Academics:&lt;/h3&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h4 class="heading" id="academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let&amp;rsquo;s see what the system has become nowadays:&lt;/h4&gt;
+&lt;ul&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Wrong ratio of knowledge, skill, experience (knowledge takes about 90%).&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Generalised curriculum for all students.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;/ul&gt;
-&lt;h4 class="heading" id="extra-bad"&gt;
- Extra bad:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#extra-bad"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;ul&gt;
+&lt;h4 class="heading" id="extra-bad"&gt;Extra bad:&lt;/h4&gt;
+&lt;ul&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Goals are only bound to exams/grades, degree or certifications (year 1088), then getting jobs.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Unhealthy pressure and competition for students.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Money game.&lt;/li&gt;
diff --git a/docs/tags/system/index.xml b/docs/tags/system/index.xml
index 30fd507..289bc54 100644
--- a/docs/tags/system/index.xml
+++ b/docs/tags/system/index.xml
@@ -1,21 +1,16 @@
-<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="yes"?><rss version="2.0" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom"><channel><title>System on Freedoms4</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/tags/system/</link><description>Recent content in System on Freedoms4</description><generator>Hugo</generator><language>en-us</language><managingEditor>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</managingEditor><webMaster>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</webMaster><lastBuildDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://freedoms4.org/tags/system/index.xml" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><item><title>What is Education?</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</link><pubDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</pubDate><author>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</author><guid>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</guid><description>&lt;h1 class="heading" id="what-is-education"&gt;
- What is Education?&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#what-is-education"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;p&gt;Education simply means &amp;ldquo;learning&amp;rdquo;. It&amp;rsquo;s a natural process.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h3 class="heading" id="ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;
- Ratio of components in Education:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h3 class="heading" id="education-vs-academics"&gt;
- Education vs Academics:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#education-vs-academics"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;
-&lt;h4 class="heading" id="academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;
- Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let&amp;rsquo;s see what the system has become nowadays:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;ul&gt;
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="yes"?><rss version="2.0" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom"><channel><title>System on Freedoms4</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/tags/system/</link><description>Recent content in System on Freedoms4</description><generator>Hugo</generator><language>en-us</language><managingEditor>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</managingEditor><webMaster>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</webMaster><lastBuildDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://freedoms4.org/tags/system/index.xml" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><item><title>What is Education?</title><link>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</link><pubDate>Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000</pubDate><author>your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)</author><guid>https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/</guid><description>&lt;h1 class="heading" id="what-is-education"&gt;What is Education?&lt;/h1&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;Education simply means &amp;ldquo;learning&amp;rdquo;. It&amp;rsquo;s a natural process.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h3 class="heading" id="ratio-of-components-in-education"&gt;Ratio of components in Education:&lt;/h3&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h3 class="heading" id="education-vs-academics"&gt;Education vs Academics:&lt;/h3&gt;
+&lt;p&gt;Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;
+&lt;h4 class="heading" id="academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"&gt;Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let&amp;rsquo;s see what the system has become nowadays:&lt;/h4&gt;
+&lt;ul&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Wrong ratio of knowledge, skill, experience (knowledge takes about 90%).&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Generalised curriculum for all students.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;/ul&gt;
-&lt;h4 class="heading" id="extra-bad"&gt;
- Extra bad:&lt;span class="heading__anchor"&gt; &lt;a href="#extra-bad"&gt;#&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
-&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;ul&gt;
+&lt;h4 class="heading" id="extra-bad"&gt;Extra bad:&lt;/h4&gt;
+&lt;ul&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Goals are only bound to exams/grades, degree or certifications (year 1088), then getting jobs.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Unhealthy pressure and competition for students.&lt;/li&gt;
 &lt;li&gt;Money game.&lt;/li&gt;
diff --git a/docs/terms/index.html b/docs/terms/index.html
index d0be1cf..94a52b3 100644
--- a/docs/terms/index.html
+++ b/docs/terms/index.html
@@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
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-Blog posts</button></div></div></div></div><nav class="menu language"><ul class="menu__list language__list"><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/>Home</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/blog/>Blog</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/services/>Services</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/uninotes/>UniNotes</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/contact/>Contact</a></li></ul></nav></header><main class=main><h1>Terms and Conditions</h1><p><strong>Last Updated: June 13, 2026</strong></p><p>This service is operated as a non-profit initiative with the goal of providing reliable services to its users. We are not driven by commercial interests and any resources received are used solely to support, maintain, and improve the services.</p><h2 class=heading id=1-acceptance-of-terms>1. Acceptance of Terms<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#1-acceptance-of-terms>#</a></span></h2><p>By creating an account or using our services, you agree to be bound by these &ldquo;Terms and Conditions&rdquo;. If you do not agree to these terms, you must not use our services.</p><h2 class=heading id=2-services>2. Services<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#2-services>#</a></span></h2><p>We provide communication-related services, including but not limited to: <a href=https://freedoms4.org/services/email-account/>Email</a> and <a href=http://localhost:1313/services/xmpp-account/>XMPP</a> messaging services, and online <a href=https://freedoms4.org/services/file-share/>File Share</a> service.</p><p>We may modify, suspend, or discontinue any part of the services at any time with prior notice.</p><h2 class=heading id=3-account-registration>3. Account Registration<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#3-account-registration>#</a></span></h2><p>To use certain services, you must create an account with a valid email address.</p><p>You are responsible for:</p><ul><li>Maintaining the confidentiality of your account credentials.</li><li>All activities that occur under your account.</li><li>Promptly notifying us of any unauthorized access or security breach.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=4-acceptable-use>4. 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User Content<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#5-user-content>#</a></span></h2><p>You retain ownership of any content you transmit or store through the services.</p><p>By using the services, you grant us the limited rights necessary to operate, maintain, and provide the services.</p><p>You are solely responsible for the content associated with your account.</p><h2 class=heading id=6-service-availability>6. Service Availability<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#6-service-availability>#</a></span></h2><p>We strive to provide reliable services but do not guarantee uninterrupted availability.</p><p>Services may be unavailable due to maintenance, upgrades, security issues, or circumstances beyond our control.</p><h2 class=heading id=7-privacy>7. Privacy<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#7-privacy>#</a></span></h2><p>Your use of the services is also governed by our <a href=https://freedoms4.org/privacy/>Privacy Policy</a>. Please review the policies to understand how we collect, use, and protect your information.</p><h2 class=heading id=8-account-suspension-and-termination>8. Account Suspension and Termination<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#8-account-suspension-and-termination>#</a></span></h2><p>We may suspend or terminate your account if:</p><ul><li>You violate these terms.</li><li>Your use poses a security risk.</li><li>We are required to do so by law.</li></ul><p>You may stop using the services and <a href=https://freedoms4.org/contact/>request</a> account deletion at any time.</p><h2 class=heading id=9-disclaimer-of-warranties>9. 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Changes to These Terms<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#11-changes-to-these-terms>#</a></span></h2><p>We may update these terms from time to time.</p><p>If we make material changes, we will provide reasonable notice through the website or by email. Continued use of the services after changes become effective constitutes acceptance of the revised terms.</p><h2 class=heading id=12-governing-law>12. Governing Law<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#12-governing-law>#</a></span></h2><p>These terms shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the applicable jurisdiction where our servers are located.</p><p><strong>If you have any questions about these terms, please <a href=https://freedoms4.org/contact/>contact</a> us.</strong></p></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
+Blog posts</button></div></div></div></div><nav class="menu language"><ul class="menu__list language__list"><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/>Home</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/blog/>Blog</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/services/>Services</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/uninotes/>UniNotes</a></li><li class=menu__item><a class=menu__link href=/contact/>Contact</a></li></ul></nav></header><main class=main><h1>Terms and Conditions</h1><p><strong>Last Updated: June 13, 2026</strong></p><p>This service is operated as a non-profit initiative with the goal of providing reliable services to its users. We are not driven by commercial interests and any resources received are used solely to support, maintain, and improve the services.</p><h2 class=heading id=1-acceptance-of-terms>1. Acceptance of Terms</h2><p>By creating an account or using our services, you agree to be bound by these &ldquo;Terms and Conditions&rdquo;. If you do not agree to these terms, you must not use our services.</p><h2 class=heading id=2-services>2. Services</h2><p>We provide communication-related services, including but not limited to: <a href=https://freedoms4.org/services/email-account/>Email</a> and <a href=http://localhost:1313/services/xmpp-account/>XMPP</a> messaging services, and online <a href=https://freedoms4.org/services/file-share/>File Share</a> service.</p><p>We may modify, suspend, or discontinue any part of the services at any time with prior notice.</p><h2 class=heading id=3-account-registration>3. Account Registration</h2><p>To use certain services, you must create an account with a valid email address.</p><p>You are responsible for:</p><ul><li>Maintaining the confidentiality of your account credentials.</li><li>All activities that occur under your account.</li><li>Promptly notifying us of any unauthorized access or security breach.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=4-acceptable-use>4. Acceptable Use</h2><p>You agree not to use the services to:</p><ul><li>Violate any applicable laws or regulations.</li><li>Send spam, unsolicited messages, or bulk communications.</li><li>Distribute malware, viruses, or other harmful software.</li><li>Harass, threaten, or abuse others.</li><li>Infringe upon the intellectual property rights of others.</li><li>Engage in fraudulent, deceptive, or illegal activities.</li></ul><p>We reserve the right to suspend or terminate accounts that violate these rules.</p><h2 class=heading id=5-user-content>5. User Content</h2><p>You retain ownership of any content you transmit or store through the services.</p><p>By using the services, you grant us the limited rights necessary to operate, maintain, and provide the services.</p><p>You are solely responsible for the content associated with your account.</p><h2 class=heading id=6-service-availability>6. Service Availability</h2><p>We strive to provide reliable services but do not guarantee uninterrupted availability.</p><p>Services may be unavailable due to maintenance, upgrades, security issues, or circumstances beyond our control.</p><h2 class=heading id=7-privacy>7. Privacy</h2><p>Your use of the services is also governed by our <a href=https://freedoms4.org/privacy/>Privacy Policy</a>. Please review the policies to understand how we collect, use, and protect your information.</p><h2 class=heading id=8-account-suspension-and-termination>8. Account Suspension and Termination</h2><p>We may suspend or terminate your account if:</p><ul><li>You violate these terms.</li><li>Your use poses a security risk.</li><li>We are required to do so by law.</li></ul><p>You may stop using the services and <a href=https://freedoms4.org/contact/>request</a> account deletion at any time.</p><h2 class=heading id=9-disclaimer-of-warranties>9. Disclaimer of Warranties</h2><p>The services are provided &ldquo;as is&rdquo; and &ldquo;as available&rdquo;.</p><p>To the fullest extent permitted by law, we disclaim all warranties, express or implied, including warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, and non-infringement.</p><h2 class=heading id=10-limitation-of-liability>10. 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-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>BO DCM1109 QNA | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content=" June 20, 2026 # QNA # Model Question Paper 5 Marks (200-250 words) # 1. Discuss the difference between entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship.
+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>BO DCM1109 QNA | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="June 20, 2026 QNA Model Question Paper 5 Marks (200-250 words) 1. Discuss the difference between entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship.
 Ans.
 Difference Between Entrepreneurship and Intrapreneurship:
 Entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship are related to innovation, creativity, and business development. However, they differ in terms of ownership, risk, resources, and decision-making. The following table highlights the major differences between the two concepts.
-Basis Entrepreneurship Intrapreneurship A) Meaning Process of starting and managing a new business venture. Entrepreneurial activities carried out within an existing organization. B) Ownership Entrepreneur owns and manages the business. Intrapreneur does not own the business and works as an employee. C) Risk Bearing Bears the entire financial and business risk. Faces limited personal risk as the organization bears most risks. D) Resources Arranges own capital, manpower, and other resources. Uses resources provided by the organization. E) Decision-Making Has complete freedom to make business decisions. Works within organizational policies and guidelines. F) Rewards Earns profits and business gains. Receives salary, incentives, recognition, and promotions. Conclusion"><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/qna/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="BO DCM1109 QNA"><meta property="og:description" content="June 20, 2026 # QNA # Model Question Paper 5 Marks (200-250 words) # 1. Discuss the difference between entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship.
+Basis Entrepreneurship Intrapreneurship A) Meaning Process of starting and managing a new business venture. Entrepreneurial activities carried out within an existing organization. B) Ownership Entrepreneur owns and manages the business. Intrapreneur does not own the business and works as an employee. C) Risk Bearing Bears the entire financial and business risk. Faces limited personal risk as the organization bears most risks. D) Resources Arranges own capital, manpower, and other resources. Uses resources provided by the organization. E) Decision-Making Has complete freedom to make business decisions. Works within organizational policies and guidelines. F) Rewards Earns profits and business gains. Receives salary, incentives, recognition, and promotions. Conclusion"><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/qna/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="BO DCM1109 QNA"><meta property="og:description" content="June 20, 2026 QNA Model Question Paper 5 Marks (200-250 words) 1. Discuss the difference between entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship.
 Ans.
 Difference Between Entrepreneurship and Intrapreneurship:
 Entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship are related to innovation, creativity, and business development. However, they differ in terms of ownership, risk, resources, and decision-making. The following table highlights the major differences between the two concepts.
-Basis Entrepreneurship Intrapreneurship A) Meaning Process of starting and managing a new business venture. Entrepreneurial activities carried out within an existing organization. B) Ownership Entrepreneur owns and manages the business. Intrapreneur does not own the business and works as an employee. C) Risk Bearing Bears the entire financial and business risk. Faces limited personal risk as the organization bears most risks. D) Resources Arranges own capital, manpower, and other resources. Uses resources provided by the organization. E) Decision-Making Has complete freedom to make business decisions. Works within organizational policies and guidelines. F) Rewards Earns profits and business gains. Receives salary, incentives, recognition, and promotions. Conclusion"><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="BO DCM1109 QNA"><meta itemprop=description content="June 20, 2026 # QNA # Model Question Paper 5 Marks (200-250 words) # 1. Discuss the difference between entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship.
+Basis Entrepreneurship Intrapreneurship A) Meaning Process of starting and managing a new business venture. Entrepreneurial activities carried out within an existing organization. B) Ownership Entrepreneur owns and manages the business. Intrapreneur does not own the business and works as an employee. C) Risk Bearing Bears the entire financial and business risk. Faces limited personal risk as the organization bears most risks. D) Resources Arranges own capital, manpower, and other resources. Uses resources provided by the organization. E) Decision-Making Has complete freedom to make business decisions. Works within organizational policies and guidelines. F) Rewards Earns profits and business gains. Receives salary, incentives, recognition, and promotions. Conclusion"><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="BO DCM1109 QNA"><meta itemprop=description content="June 20, 2026 QNA Model Question Paper 5 Marks (200-250 words) 1. Discuss the difference between entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship.
 Ans.
 Difference Between Entrepreneurship and Intrapreneurship:
 Entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship are related to innovation, creativity, and business development. However, they differ in terms of ownership, risk, resources, and decision-making. The following table highlights the major differences between the two concepts.
-Basis Entrepreneurship Intrapreneurship A) Meaning Process of starting and managing a new business venture. Entrepreneurial activities carried out within an existing organization. B) Ownership Entrepreneur owns and manages the business. Intrapreneur does not own the business and works as an employee. C) Risk Bearing Bears the entire financial and business risk. Faces limited personal risk as the organization bears most risks. D) Resources Arranges own capital, manpower, and other resources. Uses resources provided by the organization. E) Decision-Making Has complete freedom to make business decisions. Works within organizational policies and guidelines. F) Rewards Earns profits and business gains. Receives salary, incentives, recognition, and promotions. Conclusion"><meta itemprop=wordCount content="10686"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,BO DCM1109"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
+Basis Entrepreneurship Intrapreneurship A) Meaning Process of starting and managing a new business venture. Entrepreneurial activities carried out within an existing organization. B) Ownership Entrepreneur owns and manages the business. Intrapreneur does not own the business and works as an employee. C) Risk Bearing Bears the entire financial and business risk. Faces limited personal risk as the organization bears most risks. D) Resources Arranges own capital, manpower, and other resources. Uses resources provided by the organization. E) Decision-Making Has complete freedom to make business decisions. Works within organizational policies and guidelines. F) Rewards Earns profits and business gains. Receives salary, incentives, recognition, and promotions. Conclusion"><meta itemprop=wordCount content="10680"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,BO DCM1109"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
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 <span>QNA</span></nav><div class=uninotes-meta><span class=uninotes-meta__pill>S1</span> <span class=uninotes-meta__pill>BO DCM1109</span>
-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--qna">QNA</span></div><h1>QNA</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#june-20-2026><em><strong>June 20, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#qna>QNA</a><ul><li><a href=#model-question-paper-5-marks-200-250-words>Model Question Paper 5 Marks (200-250 words)</a></li><li><a href=#model-question-paper-10-marks-400-500-words>Model Question Paper 10 Marks (400-500 words)</a></li><li><a href=#questions-from-previous-year-question-papers-10-marks>Questions from Previous Year Question Papers 10 Marks</a></li><li><a href=#unit-1-long-answer-400-500-words>Unit 1 Long Answer (400-500 words)</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=june-20-2026><em><strong>June 20, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#june-20-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=qna>QNA<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#qna>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=model-question-paper-5-marks-200-250-words>Model Question Paper 5 Marks (200-250 words)<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#model-question-paper-5-marks-200-250-words>#</a></span></h3><p><strong>1. Discuss the difference between entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Difference Between Entrepreneurship and Intrapreneurship:</strong></p><p>Entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship are related to innovation, creativity, and business development. However, they differ in terms of ownership, risk, resources, and decision-making. The following table highlights the major differences between the two concepts.</p><div class=table-wrapper><table><thead><tr><th><strong>Basis</strong></th><th><strong>Entrepreneurship</strong></th><th><strong>Intrapreneurship</strong></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>A) Meaning</strong></td><td>Process of starting and managing a new business venture.</td><td>Entrepreneurial activities carried out within an existing organization.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>B) Ownership</strong></td><td>Entrepreneur owns and manages the business.</td><td>Intrapreneur does not own the business and works as an employee.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>C) Risk Bearing</strong></td><td>Bears the entire financial and business risk.</td><td>Faces limited personal risk as the organization bears most risks.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>D) Resources</strong></td><td>Arranges own capital, manpower, and other resources.</td><td>Uses resources provided by the organization.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>E) Decision-Making</strong></td><td>Has complete freedom to make business decisions.</td><td>Works within organizational policies and guidelines.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>F) Rewards</strong></td><td>Earns profits and business gains.</td><td>Receives salary, incentives, recognition, and promotions.</td></tr></tbody></table></div><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>Entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship both promote innovation and creativity. Entrepreneurship involves creating and owning a new business while assuming all risks and responsibilities. In contrast, intrapreneurship involves developing innovative ideas within an existing organization using its resources. Both contribute significantly to economic growth, organizational development, and the creation of new opportunities.</p><p><strong>2. What are the key advantages of a partnership business?</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Key Advantages of a Partnership Business:</strong></p><p>A partnership business is a form of organization in which two or more persons agree to carry on a business and share its profits and losses. It is one of the most common forms of business organization due to its flexibility and ease of operation. A partnership business offers several advantages to its owners.</p><p><strong>A) Easy Formation:</strong>
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--qna">QNA</span></div><h1>QNA</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#june-20-2026><em><strong>June 20, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#qna>QNA</a><ul><li><a href=#model-question-paper-5-marks-200-250-words>Model Question Paper 5 Marks (200-250 words)</a></li><li><a href=#model-question-paper-10-marks-400-500-words>Model Question Paper 10 Marks (400-500 words)</a></li><li><a href=#questions-from-previous-year-question-papers-10-marks>Questions from Previous Year Question Papers 10 Marks</a></li><li><a href=#unit-1-long-answer-400-500-words>Unit 1 Long Answer (400-500 words)</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=june-20-2026><em><strong>June 20, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=qna>QNA</h2><h3 class=heading id=model-question-paper-5-marks-200-250-words>Model Question Paper 5 Marks (200-250 words)</h3><p><strong>1. Discuss the difference between entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Difference Between Entrepreneurship and Intrapreneurship:</strong></p><p>Entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship are related to innovation, creativity, and business development. However, they differ in terms of ownership, risk, resources, and decision-making. The following table highlights the major differences between the two concepts.</p><div class=table-wrapper><table><thead><tr><th><strong>Basis</strong></th><th><strong>Entrepreneurship</strong></th><th><strong>Intrapreneurship</strong></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>A) Meaning</strong></td><td>Process of starting and managing a new business venture.</td><td>Entrepreneurial activities carried out within an existing organization.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>B) Ownership</strong></td><td>Entrepreneur owns and manages the business.</td><td>Intrapreneur does not own the business and works as an employee.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>C) Risk Bearing</strong></td><td>Bears the entire financial and business risk.</td><td>Faces limited personal risk as the organization bears most risks.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>D) Resources</strong></td><td>Arranges own capital, manpower, and other resources.</td><td>Uses resources provided by the organization.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>E) Decision-Making</strong></td><td>Has complete freedom to make business decisions.</td><td>Works within organizational policies and guidelines.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>F) Rewards</strong></td><td>Earns profits and business gains.</td><td>Receives salary, incentives, recognition, and promotions.</td></tr></tbody></table></div><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>Entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship both promote innovation and creativity. Entrepreneurship involves creating and owning a new business while assuming all risks and responsibilities. In contrast, intrapreneurship involves developing innovative ideas within an existing organization using its resources. Both contribute significantly to economic growth, organizational development, and the creation of new opportunities.</p><p><strong>2. What are the key advantages of a partnership business?</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Key Advantages of a Partnership Business:</strong></p><p>A partnership business is a form of organization in which two or more persons agree to carry on a business and share its profits and losses. It is one of the most common forms of business organization due to its flexibility and ease of operation. A partnership business offers several advantages to its owners.</p><p><strong>A) Easy Formation:</strong>
 A partnership business is easy to establish. It requires fewer legal formalities and can be formed through an agreement between the partners.</p><p><strong>B) Availability of More Capital:</strong>
 Since more than one person contributes capital, a partnership business can raise more funds compared to a sole proprietorship. This helps in expanding business operations.</p><p><strong>C) Sharing of Risks:</strong>
 The risks and losses of the business are shared among the partners according to the agreed ratio. This reduces the burden on any single individual.</p><p><strong>D) Better Decision-Making:</strong>
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ Employees are entitled to weekly holidays and rest intervals. This helps maintai
 The Act provides for various types of leave, such as casual leave, sick leave, and earned leave, along with national and festival holidays.</p><p><strong>D) Employment of Women and Young Persons:</strong>
 Special provisions are made regarding the working conditions, safety, and working hours of women and young workers.</p><p><strong>E) Maintenance of Records:</strong>
 Employers are required to maintain records related to employees, wages, attendance, and working hours to ensure compliance with legal requirements.</p><p><strong>F) Health and Safety Measures:</strong>
-The Act promotes a safe and healthy working environment by prescribing standards related to cleanliness, ventilation, lighting, and employee welfare.</p><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>The Shop and Establishment Act plays a vital role in regulating commercial establishments and protecting employee rights. By ensuring proper working hours, leave facilities, safety measures, and welfare provisions, the Act contributes to better working conditions and harmonious employer-employee relations.</p><h3 class=heading id=model-question-paper-10-marks-400-500-words>Model Question Paper 10 Marks (400-500 words)<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#model-question-paper-10-marks-400-500-words>#</a></span></h3><p><strong>1. Explain the concept of MNCs. Discuss the key drivers of the growth of MNCs.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Concept of MNCs and Key Drivers of Their Growth:</strong></p><p>Multinational Corporations (MNCs) are large business organizations that operate in more than one country. They have their headquarters in one country and conduct production, marketing, research, or other business activities through branches, subsidiaries, or joint ventures in different countries. MNCs play a significant role in the global economy by facilitating international trade, investment, technology transfer, and employment generation. Examples of multinational corporations include companies operating across various countries with a global business presence.</p><p><strong>A) Meaning and Concept of MNCs:</strong>
+The Act promotes a safe and healthy working environment by prescribing standards related to cleanliness, ventilation, lighting, and employee welfare.</p><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>The Shop and Establishment Act plays a vital role in regulating commercial establishments and protecting employee rights. By ensuring proper working hours, leave facilities, safety measures, and welfare provisions, the Act contributes to better working conditions and harmonious employer-employee relations.</p><h3 class=heading id=model-question-paper-10-marks-400-500-words>Model Question Paper 10 Marks (400-500 words)</h3><p><strong>1. Explain the concept of MNCs. Discuss the key drivers of the growth of MNCs.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Concept of MNCs and Key Drivers of Their Growth:</strong></p><p>Multinational Corporations (MNCs) are large business organizations that operate in more than one country. They have their headquarters in one country and conduct production, marketing, research, or other business activities through branches, subsidiaries, or joint ventures in different countries. MNCs play a significant role in the global economy by facilitating international trade, investment, technology transfer, and employment generation. Examples of multinational corporations include companies operating across various countries with a global business presence.</p><p><strong>A) Meaning and Concept of MNCs:</strong>
 An MNC is a company that owns or controls business operations in two or more countries. These corporations manage resources, production facilities, and marketing activities on a global scale. Their objective is to expand market reach, increase profitability, and gain a competitive advantage in international markets.</p><p><strong>B) Globalization of Markets:</strong>
 One of the major drivers of MNC growth is globalization. The removal of trade barriers and increased international cooperation have enabled companies to access markets across the world and expand their operations globally.</p><p><strong>C) Technological Advancements:</strong>
 Advances in communication, transportation, and information technology have made it easier for businesses to coordinate activities across different countries. Technology has significantly reduced the cost and complexity of international operations.</p><p><strong>D) Availability of Resources:</strong>
@@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ The extent of risk and liability influences the choice of organization. In sole
 Some forms of business provide greater continuity. A company enjoys perpetual succession and continues to exist even if shareholders change, while sole proprietorship may end upon the death or incapacity of the owner.</p><p><strong>G) Government Regulations:</strong>
 Different forms of business organizations are subject to different legal requirements and regulations. Entrepreneurs may choose a form that best suits their compliance capabilities and operational needs.</p><p><strong>H) Flexibility in Operations:</strong>
 Businesses requiring quick decision-making and flexibility often prefer sole proprietorship or partnership, as these forms involve fewer formalities and simpler management structures.</p><p><strong>I) Profit Sharing and Objectives:</strong>
-The manner in which profits are shared and the objectives of the business also affect the choice. Cooperative societies focus on service, while companies and partnerships aim primarily at profit maximization.</p><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>The choice of a suitable form of business organization depends on several factors, including the nature and size of the business, capital requirements, control, liability, continuity, government regulations, flexibility, and profit objectives. Careful consideration of these factors helps entrepreneurs select the most appropriate form of organization, ensuring efficient operations, growth, and long-term success.</p><h3 class=heading id=questions-from-previous-year-question-papers-10-marks>Questions from Previous Year Question Papers 10 Marks<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#questions-from-previous-year-question-papers-10-marks>#</a></span></h3><p><strong>1. What is a partnership firm? What are its features, merits and demerits?</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Partnership Firm: Features, Merits and Demerits</strong></p><p>A partnership firm is a form of business organization in which two or more persons agree to carry on a lawful business and share its profits and losses. The relationship among partners is governed by a partnership agreement known as the Partnership Deed. The Indian Partnership Act, 1932 regulates partnership firms in India. Partnership is suitable for businesses that require more capital, skills, and managerial abilities than a sole proprietorship can provide.</p><p><strong>A) Features of a Partnership Firm:</strong></p><p><strong>1) Two or More Persons:</strong>
+The manner in which profits are shared and the objectives of the business also affect the choice. Cooperative societies focus on service, while companies and partnerships aim primarily at profit maximization.</p><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>The choice of a suitable form of business organization depends on several factors, including the nature and size of the business, capital requirements, control, liability, continuity, government regulations, flexibility, and profit objectives. Careful consideration of these factors helps entrepreneurs select the most appropriate form of organization, ensuring efficient operations, growth, and long-term success.</p><h3 class=heading id=questions-from-previous-year-question-papers-10-marks>Questions from Previous Year Question Papers 10 Marks</h3><p><strong>1. What is a partnership firm? What are its features, merits and demerits?</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Partnership Firm: Features, Merits and Demerits</strong></p><p>A partnership firm is a form of business organization in which two or more persons agree to carry on a lawful business and share its profits and losses. The relationship among partners is governed by a partnership agreement known as the Partnership Deed. The Indian Partnership Act, 1932 regulates partnership firms in India. Partnership is suitable for businesses that require more capital, skills, and managerial abilities than a sole proprietorship can provide.</p><p><strong>A) Features of a Partnership Firm:</strong></p><p><strong>1) Two or More Persons:</strong>
 A partnership requires at least two persons to start a business. The maximum number of partners is generally governed by law.</p><p><strong>2) Agreement:</strong>
 A partnership is formed through an agreement between partners. The agreement may be written or oral, though a written agreement is preferred.</p><p><strong>3) Profit and Loss Sharing:</strong>
 Partners agree to share profits and losses in a predetermined ratio as specified in the partnership deed.</p><p><strong>4) Mutual Agency:</strong>
@@ -162,7 +162,7 @@ Employees are more motivated and satisfied when they work in an ethical environm
 Ethical businesses follow laws, rules, and regulations. This reduces the chances of legal disputes, penalties, and damage to the organization&rsquo;s image.</p><p><strong>v) Promotes Long-Term Success:</strong>
 Organizations that follow ethical practices build strong relationships with stakeholders and achieve sustainable growth. Ethical conduct contributes to long-term profitability and stability.</p><p><strong>vi) Attracts Investors and Business Partners:</strong>
 Investors and business partners prefer organizations that demonstrate integrity, transparency, and accountability. Ethical behavior enhances business credibility.</p><p><strong>vii) Contributes to Social Welfare:</strong>
-Ethical businesses support social causes, environmental protection, and community development. Such activities improve the quality of life and strengthen the organization&rsquo;s social image.</p><p><strong>B) Consequences of Unethical Behavior:</strong></p><p>Unethical practices such as fraud, corruption, misleading advertisements, tax evasion, and employee exploitation can damage a company&rsquo;s reputation and lead to financial losses. They may also result in legal action, loss of customer trust, reduced employee morale, and decline in business performance.</p><p><strong>C) Need for Ethical Practices:</strong></p><p>In today&rsquo;s competitive environment, ethical behavior is essential for maintaining public confidence and achieving sustainable growth. Businesses must establish ethical standards, promote transparency, and encourage responsible conduct at all levels.</p><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>Business ethics plays a vital role in the success and sustainability of an organization. It helps build trust, improve customer satisfaction, motivate employees, ensure legal compliance, attract investors, and contribute to social welfare. Therefore, ethical conduct should be an integral part of every business operation to achieve long-term growth and organizational success.</p><p><strong>13. Explain in brief the different stages of team formation.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Stages of Team Formation</strong></p><p>A team is a group of individuals who work together to achieve common goals and objectives. Effective teamwork is essential for organizational success because it improves cooperation, coordination, communication, and productivity. Team formation is a gradual process through which individuals come together and develop into a well-functioning team. Bruce Tuckman proposed a model that explains the different stages of team formation. These stages help managers understand how teams develop and perform over time.</p><p><strong>A) Forming Stage:</strong></p><p>The forming stage is the initial stage of team development. During this stage, team members meet each other and become familiar with the team&rsquo;s objectives, roles, and responsibilities. Members are generally polite and cautious because they are uncertain about the expectations and behavior of others.</p><p><em><strong>Characteristics:</strong></em></p><ul><li>Introduction among team members.</li><li>Understanding team goals and tasks.</li><li>Dependence on the leader for guidance.</li></ul><p><strong>B) Storming Stage:</strong></p><p>In this stage, team members begin expressing their opinions and ideas. Differences in attitudes, working styles, and viewpoints may lead to conflicts and disagreements. Members may compete for influence and leadership within the group.</p><p><em><strong>i) Characteristics:</strong></em></p><ul><li>Emergence of conflicts and misunderstandings.</li><li>Differences in opinions and expectations.</li><li>Need for conflict resolution and communication.</li></ul><p><strong>C) Norming Stage:</strong></p><p>During the norming stage, team members start resolving their differences and develop mutual understanding. Cooperation and trust increase among members, and group norms are established to guide behavior and performance.</p><p><em><strong>i) Characteristics:</strong></em></p><ul><li>Improved communication and cooperation.</li><li>Development of trust and team spirit.</li><li>Acceptance of team rules and procedures.</li></ul><p><strong>D) Performing Stage:</strong></p><p>The performing stage is the most productive stage of team development. Team members work together efficiently toward achieving organizational objectives. Roles are clearly understood, and members focus on completing tasks successfully.</p><p><em><strong>i) Characteristics:</strong></em></p><ul><li>High level of teamwork and coordination.</li><li>Effective problem-solving and decision-making.</li><li>Increased productivity and goal achievement.</li></ul><p><strong>E) Adjourning Stage:</strong></p><p>The adjourning stage occurs when the team&rsquo;s objectives have been achieved and the team is dissolved. Members evaluate their performance, complete remaining activities, and move on to new assignments.</p><p><em><strong>i) Characteristics:</strong></em></p><ul><li>Completion of team tasks.</li><li>Review of achievements and performance.</li><li>Separation of team members.</li></ul><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>Team formation is a dynamic process involving the stages of forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. Each stage plays an important role in developing a successful team. Understanding these stages helps managers guide team members effectively, resolve conflicts, encourage cooperation, and improve overall team performance. As a result, organizations can achieve their goals more efficiently through effective teamwork.</p><h3 class=heading id=unit-1-long-answer-400-500-words>Unit 1 Long Answer (400-500 words)<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#unit-1-long-answer-400-500-words>#</a></span></h3><p><strong>1. Interpret the concept and scope of business.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p>Business refers to an economic activity involving the production, purchase, sale, and distribution of goods and services with the objective of earning profit. It includes all activities undertaken to satisfy human wants through the exchange of products and services. Business plays a vital role in economic development by generating employment, creating wealth, and improving the standard of living of people. In modern society, business is considered an essential part of economic and social life.</p><p><strong>A) Concept of Business:</strong></p><p>Business involves continuous dealings in goods and services. It is not a one-time activity but a regular process carried out with the intention of earning profit. Business activities may be related to manufacturing, trading, transportation, banking, insurance, communication, and other services. Every business faces certain risks and uncertainties because future conditions cannot be predicted with complete accuracy.</p><p><strong>B) Scope of Business:</strong></p><p>The scope of business is very wide and includes various activities that facilitate the production and distribution of goods and services.</p><p><strong>i) Industry:</strong>
+Ethical businesses support social causes, environmental protection, and community development. Such activities improve the quality of life and strengthen the organization&rsquo;s social image.</p><p><strong>B) Consequences of Unethical Behavior:</strong></p><p>Unethical practices such as fraud, corruption, misleading advertisements, tax evasion, and employee exploitation can damage a company&rsquo;s reputation and lead to financial losses. They may also result in legal action, loss of customer trust, reduced employee morale, and decline in business performance.</p><p><strong>C) Need for Ethical Practices:</strong></p><p>In today&rsquo;s competitive environment, ethical behavior is essential for maintaining public confidence and achieving sustainable growth. Businesses must establish ethical standards, promote transparency, and encourage responsible conduct at all levels.</p><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>Business ethics plays a vital role in the success and sustainability of an organization. It helps build trust, improve customer satisfaction, motivate employees, ensure legal compliance, attract investors, and contribute to social welfare. Therefore, ethical conduct should be an integral part of every business operation to achieve long-term growth and organizational success.</p><p><strong>13. Explain in brief the different stages of team formation.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Stages of Team Formation</strong></p><p>A team is a group of individuals who work together to achieve common goals and objectives. Effective teamwork is essential for organizational success because it improves cooperation, coordination, communication, and productivity. Team formation is a gradual process through which individuals come together and develop into a well-functioning team. Bruce Tuckman proposed a model that explains the different stages of team formation. These stages help managers understand how teams develop and perform over time.</p><p><strong>A) Forming Stage:</strong></p><p>The forming stage is the initial stage of team development. During this stage, team members meet each other and become familiar with the team&rsquo;s objectives, roles, and responsibilities. Members are generally polite and cautious because they are uncertain about the expectations and behavior of others.</p><p><em><strong>Characteristics:</strong></em></p><ul><li>Introduction among team members.</li><li>Understanding team goals and tasks.</li><li>Dependence on the leader for guidance.</li></ul><p><strong>B) Storming Stage:</strong></p><p>In this stage, team members begin expressing their opinions and ideas. Differences in attitudes, working styles, and viewpoints may lead to conflicts and disagreements. Members may compete for influence and leadership within the group.</p><p><em><strong>i) Characteristics:</strong></em></p><ul><li>Emergence of conflicts and misunderstandings.</li><li>Differences in opinions and expectations.</li><li>Need for conflict resolution and communication.</li></ul><p><strong>C) Norming Stage:</strong></p><p>During the norming stage, team members start resolving their differences and develop mutual understanding. Cooperation and trust increase among members, and group norms are established to guide behavior and performance.</p><p><em><strong>i) Characteristics:</strong></em></p><ul><li>Improved communication and cooperation.</li><li>Development of trust and team spirit.</li><li>Acceptance of team rules and procedures.</li></ul><p><strong>D) Performing Stage:</strong></p><p>The performing stage is the most productive stage of team development. Team members work together efficiently toward achieving organizational objectives. Roles are clearly understood, and members focus on completing tasks successfully.</p><p><em><strong>i) Characteristics:</strong></em></p><ul><li>High level of teamwork and coordination.</li><li>Effective problem-solving and decision-making.</li><li>Increased productivity and goal achievement.</li></ul><p><strong>E) Adjourning Stage:</strong></p><p>The adjourning stage occurs when the team&rsquo;s objectives have been achieved and the team is dissolved. Members evaluate their performance, complete remaining activities, and move on to new assignments.</p><p><em><strong>i) Characteristics:</strong></em></p><ul><li>Completion of team tasks.</li><li>Review of achievements and performance.</li><li>Separation of team members.</li></ul><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>Team formation is a dynamic process involving the stages of forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. Each stage plays an important role in developing a successful team. Understanding these stages helps managers guide team members effectively, resolve conflicts, encourage cooperation, and improve overall team performance. As a result, organizations can achieve their goals more efficiently through effective teamwork.</p><h3 class=heading id=unit-1-long-answer-400-500-words>Unit 1 Long Answer (400-500 words)</h3><p><strong>1. Interpret the concept and scope of business.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p>Business refers to an economic activity involving the production, purchase, sale, and distribution of goods and services with the objective of earning profit. It includes all activities undertaken to satisfy human wants through the exchange of products and services. Business plays a vital role in economic development by generating employment, creating wealth, and improving the standard of living of people. In modern society, business is considered an essential part of economic and social life.</p><p><strong>A) Concept of Business:</strong></p><p>Business involves continuous dealings in goods and services. It is not a one-time activity but a regular process carried out with the intention of earning profit. Business activities may be related to manufacturing, trading, transportation, banking, insurance, communication, and other services. Every business faces certain risks and uncertainties because future conditions cannot be predicted with complete accuracy.</p><p><strong>B) Scope of Business:</strong></p><p>The scope of business is very wide and includes various activities that facilitate the production and distribution of goods and services.</p><p><strong>i) Industry:</strong>
 Industry involves the production and processing of goods. It includes activities such as manufacturing, mining, construction, and agriculture. Industries convert raw materials into finished products for consumers.</p><p><strong>ii) Commerce:</strong>
 Commerce is concerned with the distribution of goods and services from producers to consumers. It bridges the gap between production and consumption.</p><p><strong>iii) Trade:</strong>
 Trade involves the buying and selling of goods and services. It may be conducted within a country (internal trade) or between different countries (international trade).</p><p><strong>iv) Aids to Trade:</strong>
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@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 1 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content=" April 6, 2026 # Features and Nature of Business # A) Economic Activity.
+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 1 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="April 6, 2026 Features and Nature of Business A) Economic Activity.
 B) Continuous Activity.
 C) Profit Motive.
 D) Exchange of goods and services.
@@ -6,15 +6,15 @@ E) Customer Orientation.
 F) Risk and Uncertainty.
 G) Legal and Ethical Compliance.
 H) Global.
-Concept # A) Value Creation.
+Concept A) Value Creation.
 B) Profit.
 C) Social.
 D) Organised.
 E) Dynanic.
-Scope # A) Industry # Primary Industry: Extraction of raw material (agriculture, mining). Secondary Industry: Manufacturing. Tertiary Industry: Service (banking, insurance, transport, delivery) Quaternary Sector: Knowledge based services (IT, education/training) Quinary Sector: Services of leading roles (Government services, NGOs) B) Commerce # Trade. Auxiliaries to Trade. C) Modern Dimensions of Business # E-Business. Green Business. Social Business. Global Business. Business as a System # A) Interdependance.
+Scope A) Industry Primary Industry: Extraction of raw material (agriculture, mining). Secondary Industry: Manufacturing. Tertiary Industry: Service (banking, insurance, transport, delivery) Quaternary Sector: Knowledge based services (IT, education/training) Quinary Sector: Services of leading roles (Government services, NGOs) B) Commerce Trade. Auxiliaries to Trade. C) Modern Dimensions of Business E-Business. Green Business. Social Business. Global Business. Business as a System A) Interdependance.
 B) Input-Process-Output Model.
 C) Open System.
-D) Dynamic Nature."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit1/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 1"><meta property="og:description" content="April 6, 2026 # Features and Nature of Business # A) Economic Activity.
+D) Dynamic Nature."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit1/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 1"><meta property="og:description" content="April 6, 2026 Features and Nature of Business A) Economic Activity.
 B) Continuous Activity.
 C) Profit Motive.
 D) Exchange of goods and services.
@@ -22,15 +22,15 @@ E) Customer Orientation.
 F) Risk and Uncertainty.
 G) Legal and Ethical Compliance.
 H) Global.
-Concept # A) Value Creation.
+Concept A) Value Creation.
 B) Profit.
 C) Social.
 D) Organised.
 E) Dynanic.
-Scope # A) Industry # Primary Industry: Extraction of raw material (agriculture, mining). Secondary Industry: Manufacturing. Tertiary Industry: Service (banking, insurance, transport, delivery) Quaternary Sector: Knowledge based services (IT, education/training) Quinary Sector: Services of leading roles (Government services, NGOs) B) Commerce # Trade. Auxiliaries to Trade. C) Modern Dimensions of Business # E-Business. Green Business. Social Business. Global Business. Business as a System # A) Interdependance.
+Scope A) Industry Primary Industry: Extraction of raw material (agriculture, mining). Secondary Industry: Manufacturing. Tertiary Industry: Service (banking, insurance, transport, delivery) Quaternary Sector: Knowledge based services (IT, education/training) Quinary Sector: Services of leading roles (Government services, NGOs) B) Commerce Trade. Auxiliaries to Trade. C) Modern Dimensions of Business E-Business. Green Business. Social Business. Global Business. Business as a System A) Interdependance.
 B) Input-Process-Output Model.
 C) Open System.
-D) Dynamic Nature."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 1"><meta itemprop=description content="April 6, 2026 # Features and Nature of Business # A) Economic Activity.
+D) Dynamic Nature."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 1"><meta itemprop=description content="April 6, 2026 Features and Nature of Business A) Economic Activity.
 B) Continuous Activity.
 C) Profit Motive.
 D) Exchange of goods and services.
@@ -38,15 +38,15 @@ E) Customer Orientation.
 F) Risk and Uncertainty.
 G) Legal and Ethical Compliance.
 H) Global.
-Concept # A) Value Creation.
+Concept A) Value Creation.
 B) Profit.
 C) Social.
 D) Organised.
 E) Dynanic.
-Scope # A) Industry # Primary Industry: Extraction of raw material (agriculture, mining). Secondary Industry: Manufacturing. Tertiary Industry: Service (banking, insurance, transport, delivery) Quaternary Sector: Knowledge based services (IT, education/training) Quinary Sector: Services of leading roles (Government services, NGOs) B) Commerce # Trade. Auxiliaries to Trade. C) Modern Dimensions of Business # E-Business. Green Business. Social Business. Global Business. Business as a System # A) Interdependance.
+Scope A) Industry Primary Industry: Extraction of raw material (agriculture, mining). Secondary Industry: Manufacturing. Tertiary Industry: Service (banking, insurance, transport, delivery) Quaternary Sector: Knowledge based services (IT, education/training) Quinary Sector: Services of leading roles (Government services, NGOs) B) Commerce Trade. Auxiliaries to Trade. C) Modern Dimensions of Business E-Business. Green Business. Social Business. Global Business. Business as a System A) Interdependance.
 B) Input-Process-Output Model.
 C) Open System.
-D) Dynamic Nature."><meta itemprop=wordCount content="177"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,BO DCM1109"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
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 <a href=/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit1/>Unit 1</a> ›
 <span>Self</span></nav><div class=uninotes-meta><span class=uninotes-meta__pill>S1</span> <span class=uninotes-meta__pill>BO DCM1109</span>
-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 1</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-6-2026><em><strong>April 6, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#features-and-nature-of-business>Features and Nature of Business</a></li><li><a href=#concept>Concept</a></li><li><a href=#scope>Scope</a><ul><li><a href=#a-industry>A) Industry</a></li><li><a href=#b-commerce>B) Commerce</a></li><li><a href=#c-modern-dimensions-of-business>C) Modern Dimensions of Business</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#business-as-a-system>Business as a System</a><ul><li><a href=#b-input-process-output-model>B) Input-Process-Output Model</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#business-and-environment-interface>Business and Environment Interface</a></li><li><a href=#objectives-of-business>Objectives of Business</a></li><li><a href=#profit-maximization-vs-social-responsibility>Profit Maximization VS. Social Responsibility</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-6-2026><em><strong>April 6, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#april-6-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=features-and-nature-of-business>Features and Nature of Business<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#features-and-nature-of-business>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Economic Activity.<br>B) Continuous Activity.<br>C) Profit Motive.<br>D) Exchange of goods and services.<br>E) Customer Orientation.<br>F) Risk and Uncertainty.<br>G) Legal and Ethical Compliance.<br>H) Global.</p><h2 class=heading id=concept>Concept<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#concept>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Value Creation.<br>B) Profit.<br>C) Social.<br>D) Organised.<br>E) Dynanic.</p><h2 class=heading id=scope>Scope<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#scope>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=a-industry>A) Industry<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-industry>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Primary Industry: Extraction of raw material (agriculture, mining).</li><li>Secondary Industry: Manufacturing.</li><li>Tertiary Industry: Service (banking, insurance, transport, delivery)</li><li>Quaternary Sector: Knowledge based services (IT, education/training)</li><li>Quinary Sector: Services of leading roles (Government services, NGOs)</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-commerce>B) Commerce<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-commerce>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Trade.</li><li>Auxiliaries to Trade.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=c-modern-dimensions-of-business>C) Modern Dimensions of Business<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#c-modern-dimensions-of-business>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>E-Business.</li><li>Green Business.</li><li>Social Business.</li><li>Global Business.</li></ol><h2 class=heading id=business-as-a-system>Business as a System<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#business-as-a-system>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Interdependance.<br>B) Input-Process-Output Model.<br>C) Open System.<br>D) Dynamic Nature.</p><h3 class=heading id=b-input-process-output-model>B) Input-Process-Output Model<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-input-process-output-model>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Input.</li><li>Process.</li><li>Output.</li><li>Feedback.</li></ol><h2 class=heading id=business-and-environment-interface>Business and Environment Interface<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#business-and-environment-interface>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Social Environment.<br>B) Economic Environment.<br>C) Politico-legal Environment.<br>D) Technological Environment.<br>E) International Environment.</p><h2 class=heading id=objectives-of-business>Objectives of Business<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#objectives-of-business>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Economic.<br>B) Social.<br>C) Human.<br>D) National.<br>E) International.</p><h2 class=heading id=profit-maximization-vs-social-responsibility>Profit Maximization VS. Social Responsibility<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#profit-maximization-vs-social-responsibility>#</a></span></h2><p>(Research pending)</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__next-link href=/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit2/>Unit 2 →</a></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 1</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-6-2026><em><strong>April 6, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#features-and-nature-of-business>Features and Nature of Business</a></li><li><a href=#concept>Concept</a></li><li><a href=#scope>Scope</a><ul><li><a href=#a-industry>A) Industry</a></li><li><a href=#b-commerce>B) Commerce</a></li><li><a href=#c-modern-dimensions-of-business>C) Modern Dimensions of Business</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#business-as-a-system>Business as a System</a><ul><li><a href=#b-input-process-output-model>B) Input-Process-Output Model</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#business-and-environment-interface>Business and Environment Interface</a></li><li><a href=#objectives-of-business>Objectives of Business</a></li><li><a href=#profit-maximization-vs-social-responsibility>Profit Maximization VS. Social Responsibility</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-6-2026><em><strong>April 6, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=features-and-nature-of-business>Features and Nature of Business</h2><p>A) Economic Activity.<br>B) Continuous Activity.<br>C) Profit Motive.<br>D) Exchange of goods and services.<br>E) Customer Orientation.<br>F) Risk and Uncertainty.<br>G) Legal and Ethical Compliance.<br>H) Global.</p><h2 class=heading id=concept>Concept</h2><p>A) Value Creation.<br>B) Profit.<br>C) Social.<br>D) Organised.<br>E) Dynanic.</p><h2 class=heading id=scope>Scope</h2><h3 class=heading id=a-industry>A) Industry</h3><ol><li>Primary Industry: Extraction of raw material (agriculture, mining).</li><li>Secondary Industry: Manufacturing.</li><li>Tertiary Industry: Service (banking, insurance, transport, delivery)</li><li>Quaternary Sector: Knowledge based services (IT, education/training)</li><li>Quinary Sector: Services of leading roles (Government services, NGOs)</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-commerce>B) Commerce</h3><ol><li>Trade.</li><li>Auxiliaries to Trade.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=c-modern-dimensions-of-business>C) Modern Dimensions of Business</h3><ol><li>E-Business.</li><li>Green Business.</li><li>Social Business.</li><li>Global Business.</li></ol><h2 class=heading id=business-as-a-system>Business as a System</h2><p>A) Interdependance.<br>B) Input-Process-Output Model.<br>C) Open System.<br>D) Dynamic Nature.</p><h3 class=heading id=b-input-process-output-model>B) Input-Process-Output Model</h3><ol><li>Input.</li><li>Process.</li><li>Output.</li><li>Feedback.</li></ol><h2 class=heading id=business-and-environment-interface>Business and Environment Interface</h2><p>A) Social Environment.<br>B) Economic Environment.<br>C) Politico-legal Environment.<br>D) Technological Environment.<br>E) International Environment.</p><h2 class=heading id=objectives-of-business>Objectives of Business</h2><p>A) Economic.<br>B) Social.<br>C) Human.<br>D) National.<br>E) International.</p><h2 class=heading id=profit-maximization-vs-social-responsibility>Profit Maximization VS. Social Responsibility</h2><p>(Research pending)</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__next-link href=/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit2/>Unit 2 →</a></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
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-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 11 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content=" May 17, 2026 # Modes of Business Combination # A) Associations # Trade Association Chamber of Commerce Informal agreements B) Federations # Formal agreements Pools Cartels C) Consolidations # Partials Consolidations
+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 11 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="May 17, 2026 Modes of Business Combination A) Associations Trade Association Chamber of Commerce Informal agreements B) Federations Formal agreements Pools Cartels C) Consolidations Partials Consolidations
 a. Trust
 b. Holding Companies
 c. Community of Interest
@@ -6,7 +6,8 @@ Complete Consolidations
 a. Mergers
 b. Acquisition
 c. Amalgamation
-Types of Business Combination # A) Horizontal # These companies operate at the same level of production, distribution or supply chain."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit11/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 11"><meta property="og:description" content="May 17, 2026 # Modes of Business Combination # A) Associations # Trade Association Chamber of Commerce Informal agreements B) Federations # Formal agreements Pools Cartels C) Consolidations # Partials Consolidations
+Types of Business Combination A) Horizontal These companies operate at the same level of production, distribution or supply chain.
+A) Vertical A vertical combination occurs when companies operating at different stages of production or distribution of the same product combines together. There are two types of Vertical Combination:"><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit11/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 11"><meta property="og:description" content="May 17, 2026 Modes of Business Combination A) Associations Trade Association Chamber of Commerce Informal agreements B) Federations Formal agreements Pools Cartels C) Consolidations Partials Consolidations
 a. Trust
 b. Holding Companies
 c. Community of Interest
@@ -14,7 +15,8 @@ Complete Consolidations
 a. Mergers
 b. Acquisition
 c. Amalgamation
-Types of Business Combination # A) Horizontal # These companies operate at the same level of production, distribution or supply chain."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 11"><meta itemprop=description content="May 17, 2026 # Modes of Business Combination # A) Associations # Trade Association Chamber of Commerce Informal agreements B) Federations # Formal agreements Pools Cartels C) Consolidations # Partials Consolidations
+Types of Business Combination A) Horizontal These companies operate at the same level of production, distribution or supply chain.
+A) Vertical A vertical combination occurs when companies operating at different stages of production or distribution of the same product combines together. There are two types of Vertical Combination:"><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 11"><meta itemprop=description content="May 17, 2026 Modes of Business Combination A) Associations Trade Association Chamber of Commerce Informal agreements B) Federations Formal agreements Pools Cartels C) Consolidations Partials Consolidations
 a. Trust
 b. Holding Companies
 c. Community of Interest
@@ -22,7 +24,8 @@ Complete Consolidations
 a. Mergers
 b. Acquisition
 c. Amalgamation
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@@ -36,7 +39,7 @@ Blog posts</button></div></div></div></div><nav class="menu language"><ul class=
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 <a href=/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit11/>Unit 11</a> ›
 <span>Self</span></nav><div class=uninotes-meta><span class=uninotes-meta__pill>S1</span> <span class=uninotes-meta__pill>BO DCM1109</span>
-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 11</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#may-17-2026><em><strong>May 17, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#modes-of-business-combination>Modes of Business Combination</a><ul><li><a href=#a-associations>A) Associations</a></li><li><a href=#b-federations>B) Federations</a></li><li><a href=#c-consolidations>C) Consolidations</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#types-of-business-combination>Types of Business Combination</a><ul><li><a href=#a-horizontal>A) Horizontal</a></li><li><a href=#a-vertical>A) Vertical</a></li><li><a href=#c-circular>C) Circular</a></li><li><a href=#d-conglomerate>D) Conglomerate</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=may-17-2026><em><strong>May 17, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#may-17-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=modes-of-business-combination>Modes of Business Combination<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#modes-of-business-combination>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=a-associations>A) Associations<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-associations>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Trade Association</li><li>Chamber of Commerce</li><li>Informal agreements</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-federations>B) Federations<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-federations>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Formal agreements</li><li>Pools</li><li>Cartels</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=c-consolidations>C) Consolidations<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#c-consolidations>#</a></span></h3><ol><li><p>Partials Consolidations<br>a. Trust<br>b. Holding Companies<br>c. Community of Interest</p></li><li><p>Complete Consolidations<br>a. Mergers<br>b. Acquisition<br>c. Amalgamation</p></li></ol><h2 class=heading id=types-of-business-combination>Types of Business Combination<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#types-of-business-combination>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=a-horizontal>A) Horizontal<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-horizontal>#</a></span></h3><p>These companies operate at the same level of production, distribution or supply chain.</p><h3 class=heading id=a-vertical>A) Vertical<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-vertical>#</a></span></h3><p>A vertical combination occurs when companies operating at different stages of production or distribution of the same product combines together. There are two types of Vertical Combination:</p><ol><li><p><strong>Forward Combination:</strong> Forward integration takes place when a company moves forward in the supply chain, that is, closer to the final consumer.</p></li><li><p><strong>Backward Combination:</strong> Backward integration occurs when a company moves backward in the supply chain, that is, towards the source of raw materials.</p></li></ol><h3 class=heading id=c-circular>C) Circular<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#c-circular>#</a></span></h3><p>A circular combination is a type of business combination in which two or more companies engaged in different but related lines of business combine together. These companies do not produce the same product (like in horizontal combination), but their products are related in nature, use similar raw materials, or serve similar customers. Example: a company manufacturing shoes combines with a company producing leather bags. Both companies are engaged in different products, but they use similar raw materials (leather) and target similar customers.</p><h3 class=heading id=d-conglomerate>D) Conglomerate<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#d-conglomerate>#</a></span></h3><p>A conglomerate combination is a type of business combination in which two or more companies engage in completely different and unrelated businesses merge or combine together.</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit3/>← Unit 3</a>
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 11</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#may-17-2026><em><strong>May 17, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#modes-of-business-combination>Modes of Business Combination</a><ul><li><a href=#a-associations>A) Associations</a></li><li><a href=#b-federations>B) Federations</a></li><li><a href=#c-consolidations>C) Consolidations</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#types-of-business-combination>Types of Business Combination</a><ul><li><a href=#a-horizontal>A) Horizontal</a></li><li><a href=#a-vertical>A) Vertical</a></li><li><a href=#c-circular>C) Circular</a></li><li><a href=#d-conglomerate>D) Conglomerate</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=may-17-2026><em><strong>May 17, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=modes-of-business-combination>Modes of Business Combination</h2><h3 class=heading id=a-associations>A) Associations</h3><ol><li>Trade Association</li><li>Chamber of Commerce</li><li>Informal agreements</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-federations>B) Federations</h3><ol><li>Formal agreements</li><li>Pools</li><li>Cartels</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=c-consolidations>C) Consolidations</h3><ol><li><p>Partials Consolidations<br>a. Trust<br>b. Holding Companies<br>c. Community of Interest</p></li><li><p>Complete Consolidations<br>a. Mergers<br>b. Acquisition<br>c. Amalgamation</p></li></ol><h2 class=heading id=types-of-business-combination>Types of Business Combination</h2><h3 class=heading id=a-horizontal>A) Horizontal</h3><p>These companies operate at the same level of production, distribution or supply chain.</p><h3 class=heading id=a-vertical>A) Vertical</h3><p>A vertical combination occurs when companies operating at different stages of production or distribution of the same product combines together. There are two types of Vertical Combination:</p><ol><li><p><strong>Forward Combination:</strong> Forward integration takes place when a company moves forward in the supply chain, that is, closer to the final consumer.</p></li><li><p><strong>Backward Combination:</strong> Backward integration occurs when a company moves backward in the supply chain, that is, towards the source of raw materials.</p></li></ol><h3 class=heading id=c-circular>C) Circular</h3><p>A circular combination is a type of business combination in which two or more companies engaged in different but related lines of business combine together. These companies do not produce the same product (like in horizontal combination), but their products are related in nature, use similar raw materials, or serve similar customers. Example: a company manufacturing shoes combines with a company producing leather bags. Both companies are engaged in different products, but they use similar raw materials (leather) and target similar customers.</p><h3 class=heading id=d-conglomerate>D) Conglomerate</h3><p>A conglomerate combination is a type of business combination in which two or more companies engage in completely different and unrelated businesses merge or combine together.</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit3/>← Unit 3</a>
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 <a href=/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit2/>Unit 2</a> ›
 <span>Self</span></nav><div class=uninotes-meta><span class=uninotes-meta__pill>S1</span> <span class=uninotes-meta__pill>BO DCM1109</span>
-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 2</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#primary-sector>Primary Sector</a></li><li><a href=#secondary-sector>Secondary Sector</a></li><li><a href=#tertiary-sector>Tertiary Sector</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#april-12-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=primary-sector>Primary Sector<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#primary-sector>#</a></span></h2><p>The Primary Sector comprises the delivery of raw materials up to the finished product. Industries in this sector include mining for oil, coal, iron, and other minerals; Forestry, agriculture, fish farming and land reclamation, etc.</p><h2 class=heading id=secondary-sector>Secondary Sector<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#secondary-sector>#</a></span></h2><p>The Secondary Sector refines, processes and manufactures. This includes industries like petrochemical refineries, steel-making mills, factories for making equipment and machinery for industry and goods for consumer purchase.</p><h2 class=heading id=tertiary-sector>Tertiary Sector<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#tertiary-sector>#</a></span></h2><p>This involves the provision of services to businesses as well as final consumers.</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit1/>← Unit 1</a>
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 2</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#primary-sector>Primary Sector</a></li><li><a href=#secondary-sector>Secondary Sector</a></li><li><a href=#tertiary-sector>Tertiary Sector</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=primary-sector>Primary Sector</h2><p>The Primary Sector comprises the delivery of raw materials up to the finished product. Industries in this sector include mining for oil, coal, iron, and other minerals; Forestry, agriculture, fish farming and land reclamation, etc.</p><h2 class=heading id=secondary-sector>Secondary Sector</h2><p>The Secondary Sector refines, processes and manufactures. This includes industries like petrochemical refineries, steel-making mills, factories for making equipment and machinery for industry and goods for consumer purchase.</p><h2 class=heading id=tertiary-sector>Tertiary Sector</h2><p>This involves the provision of services to businesses as well as final consumers.</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit1/>← Unit 1</a>
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@@ -1,22 +1,22 @@
-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 3 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content=" April 15, 2026 # Types of co-operatives formed # A) Consumer co-operatives.
+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 3 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="April 15, 2026 Types of co-operatives formed A) Consumer co-operatives.
 B) Producer co-operatives.
 C) Marketing co-operatives.
 D) Housing co-operatives.
 E) Credit co-operatives.
 F) Cooperative Farming Societies.
-Types of Companies # A) On the Basis of Incorporation # Chartered Companies: Formed under a Royal Charter or special charter issued by the monarch (no longer applicable in India). Statutory Companies: Created by a special Act of Parliament or State Legislature. Example: Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Life Insurance Corporation (LIC). Registered Companies: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013. This includes almost all modern business entities in India. B) On the Basis of Liability # Company Limited by Shares [Section 2(22)]. Company Limited by Guarantee [Section 2(21)]. Unlimited Liability Company [Section 2(92)]. Company Limited by Both Guarantee and Shares. C) On the Basis of Ownership # Private Company (Section 2(68)). Public Company (Section 2(71)). One Person Company (Section 2(62)). D) On the Basis of Control # Holding Company: Controls one or more subsidiaries by owning over 50% voting rights or board control. Subsidiary Company: Controlled by another company. Example: Jaguar Land Rover (subsidiary of Tata Motors). E) On the Basis of Nationality # Indian Company: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013 and managed in India. Foreign Company (Section 2(42)): Incorporated outside India but has a place of business in India. Example: Google India Pvt. Ltd. F) On the Basis of Purpose # For-Profit Companies. Non-Profit Companies (Section 8): Established for charitable, educational, or social purposes. Profits are reinvested to promote their objectives. Example: CRY Foundation. "><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit3/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 3"><meta property="og:description" content="April 15, 2026 # Types of co-operatives formed # A) Consumer co-operatives.
+Types of Companies A) On the Basis of Incorporation Chartered Companies: Formed under a Royal Charter or special charter issued by the monarch (no longer applicable in India). Statutory Companies: Created by a special Act of Parliament or State Legislature. Example: Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Life Insurance Corporation (LIC). Registered Companies: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013. This includes almost all modern business entities in India. B) On the Basis of Liability Company Limited by Shares [Section 2(22)]. Company Limited by Guarantee [Section 2(21)]. Unlimited Liability Company [Section 2(92)]. Company Limited by Both Guarantee and Shares. C) On the Basis of Ownership Private Company (Section 2(68)). Public Company (Section 2(71)). One Person Company (Section 2(62)). D) On the Basis of Control Holding Company: Controls one or more subsidiaries by owning over 50% voting rights or board control. Subsidiary Company: Controlled by another company. Example: Jaguar Land Rover (subsidiary of Tata Motors). E) On the Basis of Nationality Indian Company: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013 and managed in India. Foreign Company (Section 2(42)): Incorporated outside India but has a place of business in India. Example: Google India Pvt. Ltd. F) On the Basis of Purpose For-Profit Companies. Non-Profit Companies (Section 8): Established for charitable, educational, or social purposes. Profits are reinvested to promote their objectives. Example: CRY Foundation. "><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit3/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 3"><meta property="og:description" content="April 15, 2026 Types of co-operatives formed A) Consumer co-operatives.
 B) Producer co-operatives.
 C) Marketing co-operatives.
 D) Housing co-operatives.
 E) Credit co-operatives.
 F) Cooperative Farming Societies.
-Types of Companies # A) On the Basis of Incorporation # Chartered Companies: Formed under a Royal Charter or special charter issued by the monarch (no longer applicable in India). Statutory Companies: Created by a special Act of Parliament or State Legislature. Example: Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Life Insurance Corporation (LIC). Registered Companies: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013. This includes almost all modern business entities in India. B) On the Basis of Liability # Company Limited by Shares [Section 2(22)]. Company Limited by Guarantee [Section 2(21)]. Unlimited Liability Company [Section 2(92)]. Company Limited by Both Guarantee and Shares. C) On the Basis of Ownership # Private Company (Section 2(68)). Public Company (Section 2(71)). One Person Company (Section 2(62)). D) On the Basis of Control # Holding Company: Controls one or more subsidiaries by owning over 50% voting rights or board control. Subsidiary Company: Controlled by another company. Example: Jaguar Land Rover (subsidiary of Tata Motors). E) On the Basis of Nationality # Indian Company: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013 and managed in India. Foreign Company (Section 2(42)): Incorporated outside India but has a place of business in India. Example: Google India Pvt. Ltd. F) On the Basis of Purpose # For-Profit Companies. Non-Profit Companies (Section 8): Established for charitable, educational, or social purposes. Profits are reinvested to promote their objectives. Example: CRY Foundation."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 3"><meta itemprop=description content="April 15, 2026 # Types of co-operatives formed # A) Consumer co-operatives.
+Types of Companies A) On the Basis of Incorporation Chartered Companies: Formed under a Royal Charter or special charter issued by the monarch (no longer applicable in India). Statutory Companies: Created by a special Act of Parliament or State Legislature. Example: Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Life Insurance Corporation (LIC). Registered Companies: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013. This includes almost all modern business entities in India. B) On the Basis of Liability Company Limited by Shares [Section 2(22)]. Company Limited by Guarantee [Section 2(21)]. Unlimited Liability Company [Section 2(92)]. Company Limited by Both Guarantee and Shares. C) On the Basis of Ownership Private Company (Section 2(68)). Public Company (Section 2(71)). One Person Company (Section 2(62)). D) On the Basis of Control Holding Company: Controls one or more subsidiaries by owning over 50% voting rights or board control. Subsidiary Company: Controlled by another company. Example: Jaguar Land Rover (subsidiary of Tata Motors). E) On the Basis of Nationality Indian Company: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013 and managed in India. Foreign Company (Section 2(42)): Incorporated outside India but has a place of business in India. Example: Google India Pvt. Ltd. F) On the Basis of Purpose For-Profit Companies. Non-Profit Companies (Section 8): Established for charitable, educational, or social purposes. Profits are reinvested to promote their objectives. Example: CRY Foundation."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 3"><meta itemprop=description content="April 15, 2026 Types of co-operatives formed A) Consumer co-operatives.
 B) Producer co-operatives.
 C) Marketing co-operatives.
 D) Housing co-operatives.
 E) Credit co-operatives.
 F) Cooperative Farming Societies.
-Types of Companies # A) On the Basis of Incorporation # Chartered Companies: Formed under a Royal Charter or special charter issued by the monarch (no longer applicable in India). Statutory Companies: Created by a special Act of Parliament or State Legislature. Example: Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Life Insurance Corporation (LIC). Registered Companies: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013. This includes almost all modern business entities in India. B) On the Basis of Liability # Company Limited by Shares [Section 2(22)]. Company Limited by Guarantee [Section 2(21)]. Unlimited Liability Company [Section 2(92)]. Company Limited by Both Guarantee and Shares. C) On the Basis of Ownership # Private Company (Section 2(68)). Public Company (Section 2(71)). One Person Company (Section 2(62)). D) On the Basis of Control # Holding Company: Controls one or more subsidiaries by owning over 50% voting rights or board control. Subsidiary Company: Controlled by another company. Example: Jaguar Land Rover (subsidiary of Tata Motors). E) On the Basis of Nationality # Indian Company: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013 and managed in India. Foreign Company (Section 2(42)): Incorporated outside India but has a place of business in India. Example: Google India Pvt. Ltd. F) On the Basis of Purpose # For-Profit Companies. Non-Profit Companies (Section 8): Established for charitable, educational, or social purposes. Profits are reinvested to promote their objectives. Example: CRY Foundation."><meta itemprop=wordCount content="254"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,BO DCM1109"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
+Types of Companies A) On the Basis of Incorporation Chartered Companies: Formed under a Royal Charter or special charter issued by the monarch (no longer applicable in India). Statutory Companies: Created by a special Act of Parliament or State Legislature. Example: Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Life Insurance Corporation (LIC). Registered Companies: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013. This includes almost all modern business entities in India. B) On the Basis of Liability Company Limited by Shares [Section 2(22)]. Company Limited by Guarantee [Section 2(21)]. Unlimited Liability Company [Section 2(92)]. Company Limited by Both Guarantee and Shares. C) On the Basis of Ownership Private Company (Section 2(68)). Public Company (Section 2(71)). One Person Company (Section 2(62)). D) On the Basis of Control Holding Company: Controls one or more subsidiaries by owning over 50% voting rights or board control. Subsidiary Company: Controlled by another company. Example: Jaguar Land Rover (subsidiary of Tata Motors). E) On the Basis of Nationality Indian Company: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013 and managed in India. Foreign Company (Section 2(42)): Incorporated outside India but has a place of business in India. Example: Google India Pvt. Ltd. F) On the Basis of Purpose For-Profit Companies. Non-Profit Companies (Section 8): Established for charitable, educational, or social purposes. Profits are reinvested to promote their objectives. Example: CRY Foundation."><meta itemprop=wordCount content="245"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,BO DCM1109"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
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 <a href=/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit3/>Unit 3</a> ›
 <span>Self</span></nav><div class=uninotes-meta><span class=uninotes-meta__pill>S1</span> <span class=uninotes-meta__pill>BO DCM1109</span>
-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 3</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-15-2026><em><strong>April 15, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#types-of-co-operatives-formed>Types of co-operatives formed</a></li><li><a href=#types-of-companies>Types of Companies</a><ul><li><a href=#a-on-the-basis-of-incorporation>A) On the Basis of Incorporation</a></li><li><a href=#b-on-the-basis-of-liability>B) On the Basis of Liability</a></li><li><a href=#c-on-the-basis-of-ownership>C) On the Basis of Ownership</a></li><li><a href=#d-on-the-basis-of-control>D) On the Basis of Control</a></li><li><a href=#e-on-the-basis-of-nationality>E) On the Basis of Nationality</a></li><li><a href=#f-on-the-basis-of-purpose>F) On the Basis of Purpose</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-15-2026><em><strong>April 15, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#april-15-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=types-of-co-operatives-formed>Types of co-operatives formed<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#types-of-co-operatives-formed>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Consumer co-operatives.<br>B) Producer co-operatives.<br>C) Marketing co-operatives.<br>D) Housing co-operatives.<br>E) Credit co-operatives.<br>F) Cooperative Farming Societies.</p><h2 class=heading id=types-of-companies>Types of Companies<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#types-of-companies>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=a-on-the-basis-of-incorporation>A) On the Basis of Incorporation<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-on-the-basis-of-incorporation>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Chartered Companies: Formed under a Royal Charter or special charter issued by the
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 3</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-15-2026><em><strong>April 15, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#types-of-co-operatives-formed>Types of co-operatives formed</a></li><li><a href=#types-of-companies>Types of Companies</a><ul><li><a href=#a-on-the-basis-of-incorporation>A) On the Basis of Incorporation</a></li><li><a href=#b-on-the-basis-of-liability>B) On the Basis of Liability</a></li><li><a href=#c-on-the-basis-of-ownership>C) On the Basis of Ownership</a></li><li><a href=#d-on-the-basis-of-control>D) On the Basis of Control</a></li><li><a href=#e-on-the-basis-of-nationality>E) On the Basis of Nationality</a></li><li><a href=#f-on-the-basis-of-purpose>F) On the Basis of Purpose</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-15-2026><em><strong>April 15, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=types-of-co-operatives-formed>Types of co-operatives formed</h2><p>A) Consumer co-operatives.<br>B) Producer co-operatives.<br>C) Marketing co-operatives.<br>D) Housing co-operatives.<br>E) Credit co-operatives.<br>F) Cooperative Farming Societies.</p><h2 class=heading id=types-of-companies>Types of Companies</h2><h3 class=heading id=a-on-the-basis-of-incorporation>A) On the Basis of Incorporation</h3><ol><li>Chartered Companies: Formed under a Royal Charter or special charter issued by the
 monarch (no longer applicable in India).</li><li>Statutory Companies: Created by a special Act of Parliament or State Legislature. Example:
 Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Life Insurance Corporation (LIC).</li><li>Registered Companies: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013. This includes almost
-all modern business entities in India.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-on-the-basis-of-liability>B) On the Basis of Liability<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-on-the-basis-of-liability>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Company Limited by Shares [Section 2(22)].</li><li>Company Limited by Guarantee [Section 2(21)].</li><li>Unlimited Liability Company [Section 2(92)].</li><li>Company Limited by Both Guarantee and Shares.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=c-on-the-basis-of-ownership>C) On the Basis of Ownership<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#c-on-the-basis-of-ownership>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Private Company (Section 2(68)).</li><li>Public Company (Section 2(71)).</li><li>One Person Company (Section 2(62)).</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=d-on-the-basis-of-control>D) On the Basis of Control<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#d-on-the-basis-of-control>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Holding Company: Controls one or more subsidiaries by owning over 50% voting rights or board control.</li><li>Subsidiary Company: Controlled by another company. Example: Jaguar Land Rover
-(subsidiary of Tata Motors).</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=e-on-the-basis-of-nationality>E) On the Basis of Nationality<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#e-on-the-basis-of-nationality>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Indian Company: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013 and managed in India.</li><li>Foreign Company (Section 2(42)): Incorporated outside India but has a place of business in India. Example: Google India Pvt. Ltd.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=f-on-the-basis-of-purpose>F) On the Basis of Purpose<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#f-on-the-basis-of-purpose>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>For-Profit Companies.</li><li>Non-Profit Companies (Section 8): Established for charitable, educational, or social
+all modern business entities in India.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-on-the-basis-of-liability>B) On the Basis of Liability</h3><ol><li>Company Limited by Shares [Section 2(22)].</li><li>Company Limited by Guarantee [Section 2(21)].</li><li>Unlimited Liability Company [Section 2(92)].</li><li>Company Limited by Both Guarantee and Shares.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=c-on-the-basis-of-ownership>C) On the Basis of Ownership</h3><ol><li>Private Company (Section 2(68)).</li><li>Public Company (Section 2(71)).</li><li>One Person Company (Section 2(62)).</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=d-on-the-basis-of-control>D) On the Basis of Control</h3><ol><li>Holding Company: Controls one or more subsidiaries by owning over 50% voting rights or board control.</li><li>Subsidiary Company: Controlled by another company. Example: Jaguar Land Rover
+(subsidiary of Tata Motors).</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=e-on-the-basis-of-nationality>E) On the Basis of Nationality</h3><ol><li>Indian Company: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013 and managed in India.</li><li>Foreign Company (Section 2(42)): Incorporated outside India but has a place of business in India. Example: Google India Pvt. Ltd.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=f-on-the-basis-of-purpose>F) On the Basis of Purpose</h3><ol><li>For-Profit Companies.</li><li>Non-Profit Companies (Section 8): Established for charitable, educational, or social
 purposes. Profits are reinvested to promote their objectives. Example: CRY Foundation.</li></ol><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit2/>← Unit 2</a>
 <a class=page-nav__next-link href=/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit11/>Unit 11 →</a></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
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-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 1 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content=" April 5, 2026 # Course Objectives # A) Develop analytical skills for interpreting consumer decision-making and market behaviour using economic tools.
+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 1 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="April 5, 2026 Course Objectives A) Develop analytical skills for interpreting consumer decision-making and market behaviour using economic tools.
 B) Examine cost and revenue structures of firms.
-Definition of Economics by various individuals # A) Wealth Definition by Adam Smith.
+Definition of Economics by various individuals A) Wealth Definition by Adam Smith.
 B) Welfare Definition by Alfred Marshall.
 C) Scarcity Definition by Robbins.
 D) Growth Defintion by Samuelson.
-Nature # A) Economics as a Science # Positive (what is, based on data and logic) Normative (what ought to be, opinions, judgements) B) Economics as an Art # Pure (what ought to be, ideals and goals) Applied (real world, how to implement) A) Described Economics as a Science # Focuses on laws and cause-and-effect relationships (e.g Law of Demand). Models to predict economic outcomes. Data analysis, observation, hypothesis. Real-world evidence. Deductive and Inductive reasoning. Limitaion: Human behaviour involved. Methods # A) Inductive (specific -> general).
-B) Deductive (general -> specific)."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit1/live/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 1"><meta property="og:description" content="April 5, 2026 # Course Objectives # A) Develop analytical skills for interpreting consumer decision-making and market behaviour using economic tools.
+Nature A) Economics as a Science Positive (what is, based on data and logic) Normative (what ought to be, opinions, judgements) B) Economics as an Art Pure (what ought to be, ideals and goals) Applied (real world, how to implement) A) Described Economics as a Science Focuses on laws and cause-and-effect relationships (e.g Law of Demand). Models to predict economic outcomes. Data analysis, observation, hypothesis. Real-world evidence. Deductive and Inductive reasoning. Limitaion: Human behaviour involved. Methods A) Inductive (specific -> general).
+B) Deductive (general -> specific)."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit1/live/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 1"><meta property="og:description" content="April 5, 2026 Course Objectives A) Develop analytical skills for interpreting consumer decision-making and market behaviour using economic tools.
 B) Examine cost and revenue structures of firms.
-Definition of Economics by various individuals # A) Wealth Definition by Adam Smith.
+Definition of Economics by various individuals A) Wealth Definition by Adam Smith.
 B) Welfare Definition by Alfred Marshall.
 C) Scarcity Definition by Robbins.
 D) Growth Defintion by Samuelson.
-Nature # A) Economics as a Science # Positive (what is, based on data and logic) Normative (what ought to be, opinions, judgements) B) Economics as an Art # Pure (what ought to be, ideals and goals) Applied (real world, how to implement) A) Described Economics as a Science # Focuses on laws and cause-and-effect relationships (e.g Law of Demand). Models to predict economic outcomes. Data analysis, observation, hypothesis. Real-world evidence. Deductive and Inductive reasoning. Limitaion: Human behaviour involved. Methods # A) Inductive (specific -> general).
-B) Deductive (general -> specific)."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 1"><meta itemprop=description content="April 5, 2026 # Course Objectives # A) Develop analytical skills for interpreting consumer decision-making and market behaviour using economic tools.
+Nature A) Economics as a Science Positive (what is, based on data and logic) Normative (what ought to be, opinions, judgements) B) Economics as an Art Pure (what ought to be, ideals and goals) Applied (real world, how to implement) A) Described Economics as a Science Focuses on laws and cause-and-effect relationships (e.g Law of Demand). Models to predict economic outcomes. Data analysis, observation, hypothesis. Real-world evidence. Deductive and Inductive reasoning. Limitaion: Human behaviour involved. Methods A) Inductive (specific -> general).
+B) Deductive (general -> specific)."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 1"><meta itemprop=description content="April 5, 2026 Course Objectives A) Develop analytical skills for interpreting consumer decision-making and market behaviour using economic tools.
 B) Examine cost and revenue structures of firms.
-Definition of Economics by various individuals # A) Wealth Definition by Adam Smith.
+Definition of Economics by various individuals A) Wealth Definition by Adam Smith.
 B) Welfare Definition by Alfred Marshall.
 C) Scarcity Definition by Robbins.
 D) Growth Defintion by Samuelson.
-Nature # A) Economics as a Science # Positive (what is, based on data and logic) Normative (what ought to be, opinions, judgements) B) Economics as an Art # Pure (what ought to be, ideals and goals) Applied (real world, how to implement) A) Described Economics as a Science # Focuses on laws and cause-and-effect relationships (e.g Law of Demand). Models to predict economic outcomes. Data analysis, observation, hypothesis. Real-world evidence. Deductive and Inductive reasoning. Limitaion: Human behaviour involved. Methods # A) Inductive (specific -> general).
-B) Deductive (general -> specific)."><meta itemprop=wordCount content="179"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,ET DCM1107"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
+Nature A) Economics as a Science Positive (what is, based on data and logic) Normative (what ought to be, opinions, judgements) B) Economics as an Art Pure (what ought to be, ideals and goals) Applied (real world, how to implement) A) Described Economics as a Science Focuses on laws and cause-and-effect relationships (e.g Law of Demand). Models to predict economic outcomes. Data analysis, observation, hypothesis. Real-world evidence. Deductive and Inductive reasoning. Limitaion: Human behaviour involved. Methods A) Inductive (specific -> general).
+B) Deductive (general -> specific)."><meta itemprop=wordCount content="169"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,ET DCM1107"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
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@@ -33,6 +33,6 @@ Blog posts</button></div></div></div></div><nav class="menu language"><ul class=
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 <a href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit1/>Unit 1</a> ›
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-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--live">Live</span></div><h1>Unit 1</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-5-2026><em><strong>April 5, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#course-objectives>Course Objectives</a></li><li><a href=#definition-of-economics-by-various-individuals>Definition of Economics by various individuals</a></li><li><a href=#nature>Nature</a><ul><li><a href=#a-economics-as-a-science>A) Economics as a Science</a></li><li><a href=#b-economics-as-an-art>B) Economics as an Art</a></li><li><a href=#a-described-economics-as-a-science>A) Described Economics as a Science</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#methods>Methods</a><ul><li><a href=#a-inductive>A) Inductive</a></li><li><a href=#b-deductive>B) Deductive</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-5-2026><em><strong>April 5, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#april-5-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=course-objectives>Course Objectives<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#course-objectives>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Develop analytical skills for interpreting consumer decision-making and market behaviour using economic tools.<br>B) Examine cost and revenue structures of firms.</p><h2 class=heading id=definition-of-economics-by-various-individuals>Definition of Economics by various individuals<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#definition-of-economics-by-various-individuals>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Wealth Definition by Adam Smith.<br>B) Welfare Definition by Alfred Marshall.<br>C) Scarcity Definition by Robbins.<br>D) Growth Defintion by Samuelson.</p><h2 class=heading id=nature>Nature<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#nature>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=a-economics-as-a-science>A) Economics as a Science<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-economics-as-a-science>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Positive (what is, based on data and logic)</li><li>Normative (what ought to be, opinions, judgements)</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-economics-as-an-art>B) Economics as an Art<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-economics-as-an-art>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Pure (what ought to be, ideals and goals)</li><li>Applied (real world, how to implement)</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=a-described-economics-as-a-science>A) Described Economics as a Science<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-described-economics-as-a-science>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Focuses on laws and cause-and-effect relationships (e.g Law of Demand).</li><li>Models to predict economic outcomes.</li><li>Data analysis, observation, hypothesis.</li><li>Real-world evidence.</li><li>Deductive and Inductive reasoning.</li></ol><ul><li>Limitaion: Human behaviour involved.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=methods>Methods<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#methods>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Inductive (specific -> general).<br>B) Deductive (general -> specific).</p><h3 class=heading id=a-inductive>A) Inductive<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-inductive>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Real-world observation, identify problem.</li><li>Collect data, analyze and find patterns.</li><li>Formulate and test generalisations.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-deductive>B) Deductive<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-deductive>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Identify the general problem.</li><li>Assumptions, formulate hypothesis.</li><li>Verify using data.</li></ol><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__next-link href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit2/>Unit 2 →</a></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--live">Live</span></div><h1>Unit 1</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-5-2026><em><strong>April 5, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#course-objectives>Course Objectives</a></li><li><a href=#definition-of-economics-by-various-individuals>Definition of Economics by various individuals</a></li><li><a href=#nature>Nature</a><ul><li><a href=#a-economics-as-a-science>A) Economics as a Science</a></li><li><a href=#b-economics-as-an-art>B) Economics as an Art</a></li><li><a href=#a-described-economics-as-a-science>A) Described Economics as a Science</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#methods>Methods</a><ul><li><a href=#a-inductive>A) Inductive</a></li><li><a href=#b-deductive>B) Deductive</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-5-2026><em><strong>April 5, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=course-objectives>Course Objectives</h2><p>A) Develop analytical skills for interpreting consumer decision-making and market behaviour using economic tools.<br>B) Examine cost and revenue structures of firms.</p><h2 class=heading id=definition-of-economics-by-various-individuals>Definition of Economics by various individuals</h2><p>A) Wealth Definition by Adam Smith.<br>B) Welfare Definition by Alfred Marshall.<br>C) Scarcity Definition by Robbins.<br>D) Growth Defintion by Samuelson.</p><h2 class=heading id=nature>Nature</h2><h3 class=heading id=a-economics-as-a-science>A) Economics as a Science</h3><ol><li>Positive (what is, based on data and logic)</li><li>Normative (what ought to be, opinions, judgements)</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-economics-as-an-art>B) Economics as an Art</h3><ol><li>Pure (what ought to be, ideals and goals)</li><li>Applied (real world, how to implement)</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=a-described-economics-as-a-science>A) Described Economics as a Science</h3><ol><li>Focuses on laws and cause-and-effect relationships (e.g Law of Demand).</li><li>Models to predict economic outcomes.</li><li>Data analysis, observation, hypothesis.</li><li>Real-world evidence.</li><li>Deductive and Inductive reasoning.</li></ol><ul><li>Limitaion: Human behaviour involved.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=methods>Methods</h2><p>A) Inductive (specific -> general).<br>B) Deductive (general -> specific).</p><h3 class=heading id=a-inductive>A) Inductive</h3><ol><li>Real-world observation, identify problem.</li><li>Collect data, analyze and find patterns.</li><li>Formulate and test generalisations.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-deductive>B) Deductive</h3><ol><li>Identify the general problem.</li><li>Assumptions, formulate hypothesis.</li><li>Verify using data.</li></ol><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__next-link href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit2/>Unit 2 →</a></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
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-Gross Interest # The total amount paid by the borrower to the lender for using borrowed money before deducting taxes, service charges, or other expenses.
-Net Interest # The actual or pure interest earned or paid after excluding additional charges such as risk, management costs, and inconvenience."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit12/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 12"><meta property="og:description" content="May 25, 2026 # Definitions # Interest # The payment or reward given for borrowing money or using capital for a specific period of time.
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+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 12 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="May 25, 2026 Definitions Interest The payment or reward given for borrowing money or using capital for a specific period of time.
+Gross Interest The total amount paid by the borrower to the lender for using borrowed money before deducting taxes, service charges, or other expenses.
+Net Interest The actual or pure interest earned or paid after excluding additional charges such as risk, management costs, and inconvenience.
+Nominal Rate of Interest The stated rate of return on a loan or investment without considering the effect of inflation."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit12/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 12"><meta property="og:description" content="May 25, 2026 Definitions Interest The payment or reward given for borrowing money or using capital for a specific period of time.
+Gross Interest The total amount paid by the borrower to the lender for using borrowed money before deducting taxes, service charges, or other expenses.
+Net Interest The actual or pure interest earned or paid after excluding additional charges such as risk, management costs, and inconvenience.
+Nominal Rate of Interest The stated rate of return on a loan or investment without considering the effect of inflation."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 12"><meta itemprop=description content="May 25, 2026 Definitions Interest The payment or reward given for borrowing money or using capital for a specific period of time.
+Gross Interest The total amount paid by the borrower to the lender for using borrowed money before deducting taxes, service charges, or other expenses.
+Net Interest The actual or pure interest earned or paid after excluding additional charges such as risk, management costs, and inconvenience.
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 <a href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit12/>Unit 12</a> ›
 <span>Self</span></nav><div class=uninotes-meta><span class=uninotes-meta__pill>S1</span> <span class=uninotes-meta__pill>ET DCM1107</span>
-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 12</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#may-25-2026><em><strong>May 25, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#definitions>Definitions</a><ul><li><a href=#interest>Interest</a></li><li><a href=#gross-interest>Gross Interest</a></li><li><a href=#net-interest>Net Interest</a></li><li><a href=#nominal-rate-of-interest>Nominal Rate of Interest</a></li><li><a href=#real-rate-of-interest>Real Rate of Interest</a></li><li><a href=#liquidity>Liquidity</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#theories-of-interest>Theories of Interest</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=may-25-2026><em><strong>May 25, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#may-25-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=definitions>Definitions<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#definitions>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=interest>Interest<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#interest>#</a></span></h3><p>The payment or reward given for borrowing money or using capital for a specific period of time.</p><h3 class=heading id=gross-interest>Gross Interest<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#gross-interest>#</a></span></h3><p>The total amount paid by the borrower to the lender for using borrowed money before deducting taxes, service charges, or other expenses.</p><h3 class=heading id=net-interest>Net Interest<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#net-interest>#</a></span></h3><p>The actual or pure interest earned or paid after excluding additional charges such as risk, management costs, and inconvenience.</p><h3 class=heading id=nominal-rate-of-interest>Nominal Rate of Interest<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#nominal-rate-of-interest>#</a></span></h3><p>The stated rate of return on a loan or investment without considering the effect of inflation.</p><h3 class=heading id=real-rate-of-interest>Real Rate of Interest<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#real-rate-of-interest>#</a></span></h3><p>The actual rate of return after adjusting the nominal interest rate for inflation, reflecting the true purchasing power of money.</p><h3 class=heading id=liquidity>Liquidity<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#liquidity>#</a></span></h3><p>The ease or availability with which cash or assets can be converted into ready money for immediate use.</p><h2 class=heading id=theories-of-interest>Theories of Interest<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#theories-of-interest>#</a></span></h2><div class=table-wrapper><table><thead><tr><th>Theory of Interest</th><th>Economist(s)</th><th>Short Summary</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Abstinence Theory of Interest</strong></td><td><strong>Nassau William Senior</strong></td><td>Interest is the reward paid to people who abstain from present consumption and save money for productive use.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Bohm-Bawerk’s (Agio) Theory of Interest</strong></td><td><strong>Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk</strong> (developed from John Rae’s ideas)</td><td>Interest arises because people value present goods more highly than future goods; therefore, compensation is needed for postponing consumption.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Fisher’s Time Preference Theory</strong></td><td><strong>Irving Fisher</strong></td><td>Interest is the “price of time,” determined by people’s preference for present consumption over future consumption and investment opportunities.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Loanable Funds Theory</strong></td><td><strong>Knut Wicksell, Bertil Ohlin, Dennis Robertson</strong></td><td>Interest is determined by the demand and supply of loanable funds, including savings, investment, bank credit, and hoarding.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Liquidity Preference Theory</strong></td><td><strong>John Maynard Keynes</strong></td><td>Interest is the reward for parting with liquidity; it is determined by the demand for and supply of money.</td></tr></tbody></table></div><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit7/>← Unit 7</a>
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 12</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#may-25-2026><em><strong>May 25, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#definitions>Definitions</a><ul><li><a href=#interest>Interest</a></li><li><a href=#gross-interest>Gross Interest</a></li><li><a href=#net-interest>Net Interest</a></li><li><a href=#nominal-rate-of-interest>Nominal Rate of Interest</a></li><li><a href=#real-rate-of-interest>Real Rate of Interest</a></li><li><a href=#liquidity>Liquidity</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#theories-of-interest>Theories of Interest</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=may-25-2026><em><strong>May 25, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=definitions>Definitions</h2><h3 class=heading id=interest>Interest</h3><p>The payment or reward given for borrowing money or using capital for a specific period of time.</p><h3 class=heading id=gross-interest>Gross Interest</h3><p>The total amount paid by the borrower to the lender for using borrowed money before deducting taxes, service charges, or other expenses.</p><h3 class=heading id=net-interest>Net Interest</h3><p>The actual or pure interest earned or paid after excluding additional charges such as risk, management costs, and inconvenience.</p><h3 class=heading id=nominal-rate-of-interest>Nominal Rate of Interest</h3><p>The stated rate of return on a loan or investment without considering the effect of inflation.</p><h3 class=heading id=real-rate-of-interest>Real Rate of Interest</h3><p>The actual rate of return after adjusting the nominal interest rate for inflation, reflecting the true purchasing power of money.</p><h3 class=heading id=liquidity>Liquidity</h3><p>The ease or availability with which cash or assets can be converted into ready money for immediate use.</p><h2 class=heading id=theories-of-interest>Theories of Interest</h2><div class=table-wrapper><table><thead><tr><th>Theory of Interest</th><th>Economist(s)</th><th>Short Summary</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Abstinence Theory of Interest</strong></td><td><strong>Nassau William Senior</strong></td><td>Interest is the reward paid to people who abstain from present consumption and save money for productive use.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Bohm-Bawerk’s (Agio) Theory of Interest</strong></td><td><strong>Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk</strong> (developed from John Rae’s ideas)</td><td>Interest arises because people value present goods more highly than future goods; therefore, compensation is needed for postponing consumption.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Fisher’s Time Preference Theory</strong></td><td><strong>Irving Fisher</strong></td><td>Interest is the “price of time,” determined by people’s preference for present consumption over future consumption and investment opportunities.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Loanable Funds Theory</strong></td><td><strong>Knut Wicksell, Bertil Ohlin, Dennis Robertson</strong></td><td>Interest is determined by the demand and supply of loanable funds, including savings, investment, bank credit, and hoarding.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Liquidity Preference Theory</strong></td><td><strong>John Maynard Keynes</strong></td><td>Interest is the reward for parting with liquidity; it is determined by the demand for and supply of money.</td></tr></tbody></table></div><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit7/>← Unit 7</a>
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diff --git a/docs/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit2/live/index.html b/docs/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit2/live/index.html
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--- a/docs/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit2/live/index.html
+++ b/docs/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit2/live/index.html
@@ -1,31 +1,31 @@
-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 2 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content=" April 12, 2026 # Types of Utility # A) Form Utility
+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 2 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="April 12, 2026 Types of Utility A) Form Utility
 B) Place
 C) Time
 D) Possession
-Law of Deminishing Marginal Utility # Law of Equi-Marginal Utility # Law of Demand # Price and Quantity demanded for a product is inversely related.
-Exceptions of Law of Demand # A) Assumption of increase in price.
+Law of Deminishing Marginal Utility Law of Equi-Marginal Utility Law of Demand Price and Quantity demanded for a product is inversely related.
+Exceptions of Law of Demand A) Assumption of increase in price.
 B) Status goods or Veblen goods.
 C) Giffen goods.
 D) War.
-E) Economic depression. F) Essential goods."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit2/live/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 2"><meta property="og:description" content="April 12, 2026 # Types of Utility # A) Form Utility
+E) Economic depression. F) Essential goods."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit2/live/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 2"><meta property="og:description" content="April 12, 2026 Types of Utility A) Form Utility
 B) Place
 C) Time
 D) Possession
-Law of Deminishing Marginal Utility # Law of Equi-Marginal Utility # Law of Demand # Price and Quantity demanded for a product is inversely related.
-Exceptions of Law of Demand # A) Assumption of increase in price.
+Law of Deminishing Marginal Utility Law of Equi-Marginal Utility Law of Demand Price and Quantity demanded for a product is inversely related.
+Exceptions of Law of Demand A) Assumption of increase in price.
 B) Status goods or Veblen goods.
 C) Giffen goods.
 D) War.
-E) Economic depression. F) Essential goods."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 2"><meta itemprop=description content="April 12, 2026 # Types of Utility # A) Form Utility
+E) Economic depression. F) Essential goods."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 2"><meta itemprop=description content="April 12, 2026 Types of Utility A) Form Utility
 B) Place
 C) Time
 D) Possession
-Law of Deminishing Marginal Utility # Law of Equi-Marginal Utility # Law of Demand # Price and Quantity demanded for a product is inversely related.
-Exceptions of Law of Demand # A) Assumption of increase in price.
+Law of Deminishing Marginal Utility Law of Equi-Marginal Utility Law of Demand Price and Quantity demanded for a product is inversely related.
+Exceptions of Law of Demand A) Assumption of increase in price.
 B) Status goods or Veblen goods.
 C) Giffen goods.
 D) War.
-E) Economic depression. F) Essential goods."><meta itemprop=wordCount content="71"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,ET DCM1107"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
+E) Economic depression. F) Essential goods."><meta itemprop=wordCount content="65"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,ET DCM1107"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
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@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ Blog posts</button></div></div></div></div><nav class="menu language"><ul class=
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 <a href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit2/>Unit 2</a> ›
 <span>Live</span></nav><div class=uninotes-meta><span class=uninotes-meta__pill>S1</span> <span class=uninotes-meta__pill>ET DCM1107</span>
-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--live">Live</span></div><h1>Unit 2</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#types-of-utility>Types of Utility</a></li><li><a href=#law-of-deminishing-marginal-utility>Law of Deminishing Marginal Utility</a></li><li><a href=#law-of-equi-marginal-utility>Law of Equi-Marginal Utility</a></li><li><a href=#law-of-demand>Law of Demand</a></li><li><a href=#exceptions-of-law-of-demand>Exceptions of Law of Demand</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#april-12-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=types-of-utility>Types of Utility<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#types-of-utility>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Form Utility<br>B) Place<br>C) Time<br>D) Possession</p><h2 class=heading id=law-of-deminishing-marginal-utility>Law of Deminishing Marginal Utility<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#law-of-deminishing-marginal-utility>#</a></span></h2><h2 class=heading id=law-of-equi-marginal-utility>Law of Equi-Marginal Utility<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#law-of-equi-marginal-utility>#</a></span></h2><h2 class=heading id=law-of-demand>Law of Demand<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#law-of-demand>#</a></span></h2><p>Price and Quantity demanded for a product is inversely related.</p><h2 class=heading id=exceptions-of-law-of-demand>Exceptions of Law of Demand<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#exceptions-of-law-of-demand>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Assumption of increase in price.<br>B) Status goods or Veblen goods.<br>C) Giffen goods.<br>D) War.<br>E) Economic depression.
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--live">Live</span></div><h1>Unit 2</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#types-of-utility>Types of Utility</a></li><li><a href=#law-of-deminishing-marginal-utility>Law of Deminishing Marginal Utility</a></li><li><a href=#law-of-equi-marginal-utility>Law of Equi-Marginal Utility</a></li><li><a href=#law-of-demand>Law of Demand</a></li><li><a href=#exceptions-of-law-of-demand>Exceptions of Law of Demand</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=types-of-utility>Types of Utility</h2><p>A) Form Utility<br>B) Place<br>C) Time<br>D) Possession</p><h2 class=heading id=law-of-deminishing-marginal-utility>Law of Deminishing Marginal Utility</h2><h2 class=heading id=law-of-equi-marginal-utility>Law of Equi-Marginal Utility</h2><h2 class=heading id=law-of-demand>Law of Demand</h2><p>Price and Quantity demanded for a product is inversely related.</p><h2 class=heading id=exceptions-of-law-of-demand>Exceptions of Law of Demand</h2><p>A) Assumption of increase in price.<br>B) Status goods or Veblen goods.<br>C) Giffen goods.<br>D) War.<br>E) Economic depression.
 F) Essential goods.</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit1/>← Unit 1</a>
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diff --git a/docs/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit5/self/index.html b/docs/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit5/self/index.html
index ab1c84a..ae93843 100644
--- a/docs/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit5/self/index.html
+++ b/docs/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit5/self/index.html
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-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 5 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content=" May 01, 2026 # Explicit Cost # Explicit costs are direct, out-of-pocket payments that a business or individual makes for the use of resources or services. These costs are tangible, measurable, and recorded in accounting books, including expenses like rent, utility bills, wages, raw materials, and interest on borrowed capital.
-Implicit Cost # Implicit costs are not directly paid out or recorded in financial statements, but represent the opportunity costs of using resources owned by the firm or individual. Examples include the forgone salary if an entrepreneur works in their own business instead of being employed elsewhere, or the interest income sacrificed by investing personal funds in the business rather than elsewhere."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit5/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 5"><meta property="og:description" content="May 01, 2026 # Explicit Cost # Explicit costs are direct, out-of-pocket payments that a business or individual makes for the use of resources or services. These costs are tangible, measurable, and recorded in accounting books, including expenses like rent, utility bills, wages, raw materials, and interest on borrowed capital.
-Implicit Cost # Implicit costs are not directly paid out or recorded in financial statements, but represent the opportunity costs of using resources owned by the firm or individual. Examples include the forgone salary if an entrepreneur works in their own business instead of being employed elsewhere, or the interest income sacrificed by investing personal funds in the business rather than elsewhere."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 5"><meta itemprop=description content="May 01, 2026 # Explicit Cost # Explicit costs are direct, out-of-pocket payments that a business or individual makes for the use of resources or services. These costs are tangible, measurable, and recorded in accounting books, including expenses like rent, utility bills, wages, raw materials, and interest on borrowed capital.
-Implicit Cost # Implicit costs are not directly paid out or recorded in financial statements, but represent the opportunity costs of using resources owned by the firm or individual. Examples include the forgone salary if an entrepreneur works in their own business instead of being employed elsewhere, or the interest income sacrificed by investing personal funds in the business rather than elsewhere."><meta itemprop=wordCount content="332"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,ET DCM1107"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 5 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="May 01, 2026 Explicit Cost Explicit costs are direct, out-of-pocket payments that a business or individual makes for the use of resources or services. These costs are tangible, measurable, and recorded in accounting books, including expenses like rent, utility bills, wages, raw materials, and interest on borrowed capital.
+Implicit Cost Implicit costs are not directly paid out or recorded in financial statements, but represent the opportunity costs of using resources owned by the firm or individual. Examples include the forgone salary if an entrepreneur works in their own business instead of being employed elsewhere, or the interest income sacrificed by investing personal funds in the business rather than elsewhere."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit5/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 5"><meta property="og:description" content="May 01, 2026 Explicit Cost Explicit costs are direct, out-of-pocket payments that a business or individual makes for the use of resources or services. These costs are tangible, measurable, and recorded in accounting books, including expenses like rent, utility bills, wages, raw materials, and interest on borrowed capital.
+Implicit Cost Implicit costs are not directly paid out or recorded in financial statements, but represent the opportunity costs of using resources owned by the firm or individual. Examples include the forgone salary if an entrepreneur works in their own business instead of being employed elsewhere, or the interest income sacrificed by investing personal funds in the business rather than elsewhere."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 5"><meta itemprop=description content="May 01, 2026 Explicit Cost Explicit costs are direct, out-of-pocket payments that a business or individual makes for the use of resources or services. These costs are tangible, measurable, and recorded in accounting books, including expenses like rent, utility bills, wages, raw materials, and interest on borrowed capital.
+Implicit Cost Implicit costs are not directly paid out or recorded in financial statements, but represent the opportunity costs of using resources owned by the firm or individual. Examples include the forgone salary if an entrepreneur works in their own business instead of being employed elsewhere, or the interest income sacrificed by investing personal funds in the business rather than elsewhere."><meta itemprop=wordCount content="322"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,ET DCM1107"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
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 <a href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit5/>Unit 5</a> ›
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-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 5</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#may-01-2026><em><strong>May 01, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#explicit-cost>Explicit Cost</a></li><li><a href=#implicit-cost>Implicit Cost</a></li><li><a href=#ecnonomic-profit>Ecnonomic Profit</a></li><li><a href=#short-run-costs>Short Run Costs</a></li><li><a href=#different-types-of-cost>Different types of Cost</a></li><li><a href=#cost-function>Cost Function</a></li><li><a href=#total-cost>Total Cost</a></li><li><a href=#average-cost>Average Cost</a></li><li><a href=#marginal-cost>Marginal Cost</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=may-01-2026><em><strong>May 01, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#may-01-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=explicit-cost>Explicit Cost<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#explicit-cost>#</a></span></h2><p>Explicit costs are direct, out-of-pocket payments that a business or individual makes for the use of resources or services. These costs are tangible, measurable, and recorded in accounting books, including expenses like rent, utility bills, wages, raw materials, and interest on borrowed capital.</p><h2 class=heading id=implicit-cost>Implicit Cost<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#implicit-cost>#</a></span></h2><p>Implicit costs are not directly paid out or recorded in financial statements, but represent the opportunity costs of using resources owned by the firm or individual. Examples include the forgone salary if an entrepreneur works in their own business instead of being employed elsewhere, or the interest income sacrificed by investing personal funds in the business rather than elsewhere.</p><h2 class=heading id=ecnonomic-profit>Ecnonomic Profit<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#ecnonomic-profit>#</a></span></h2><p>Economic Profit = Total Revenue − (Explicit Costs + Implicit Costs)</p><h2 class=heading id=short-run-costs>Short Run Costs<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#short-run-costs>#</a></span></h2><p>The short run refers to a time period in which at least one factor of production (such as capital, plant size, or equipment) is fixed and cannot be easily altered. During this period, firms face two types of costs:</p><ul><li>Fixed Costs (FC): These are expenses that do not change with output—such as factory rent, salaried staff, or depreciation of machinery. They remain constant regardless of the level of production.</li><li>Variable Costs (VC): These costs fluctuate with the level of output produced, including raw materials, hourly wages, energy, and packaging. As output increases, variable costs rise; as output falls, they decline.</li></ul><p>Total Cost (TC) = Fixed Cost (FC) + Variable Cost (VC)</p><h2 class=heading id=different-types-of-cost>Different types of Cost<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#different-types-of-cost>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Real Cost<br>B) Economic Cost<br>C) Accounting Cost<br>D) Social Cost<br>E) Private Cost<br>F) Opportunity Cost<br>G) External Cost<br>H) Replacement Cost</p><h2 class=heading id=cost-function>Cost Function<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#cost-function>#</a></span></h2><p>𝐶 = 𝐹 + 𝑉(𝑄)<br>where F is the fixed cost, and V(Q) is the variable cost depending on the output level Q</p><h2 class=heading id=total-cost>Total Cost<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#total-cost>#</a></span></h2><p>TC = Total Fixed Cost (TFC) + Total Variable Cost (TVC)</p><h2 class=heading id=average-cost>Average Cost<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#average-cost>#</a></span></h2><p>AC = TC / Quantity (Q)</p><h2 class=heading id=marginal-cost>Marginal Cost<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#marginal-cost>#</a></span></h2><p>TC = Change in Total Cost / Change in Quantity</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit2/>← Unit 2</a>
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 5</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#may-01-2026><em><strong>May 01, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#explicit-cost>Explicit Cost</a></li><li><a href=#implicit-cost>Implicit Cost</a></li><li><a href=#ecnonomic-profit>Ecnonomic Profit</a></li><li><a href=#short-run-costs>Short Run Costs</a></li><li><a href=#different-types-of-cost>Different types of Cost</a></li><li><a href=#cost-function>Cost Function</a></li><li><a href=#total-cost>Total Cost</a></li><li><a href=#average-cost>Average Cost</a></li><li><a href=#marginal-cost>Marginal Cost</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=may-01-2026><em><strong>May 01, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=explicit-cost>Explicit Cost</h2><p>Explicit costs are direct, out-of-pocket payments that a business or individual makes for the use of resources or services. These costs are tangible, measurable, and recorded in accounting books, including expenses like rent, utility bills, wages, raw materials, and interest on borrowed capital.</p><h2 class=heading id=implicit-cost>Implicit Cost</h2><p>Implicit costs are not directly paid out or recorded in financial statements, but represent the opportunity costs of using resources owned by the firm or individual. Examples include the forgone salary if an entrepreneur works in their own business instead of being employed elsewhere, or the interest income sacrificed by investing personal funds in the business rather than elsewhere.</p><h2 class=heading id=ecnonomic-profit>Ecnonomic Profit</h2><p>Economic Profit = Total Revenue − (Explicit Costs + Implicit Costs)</p><h2 class=heading id=short-run-costs>Short Run Costs</h2><p>The short run refers to a time period in which at least one factor of production (such as capital, plant size, or equipment) is fixed and cannot be easily altered. During this period, firms face two types of costs:</p><ul><li>Fixed Costs (FC): These are expenses that do not change with output—such as factory rent, salaried staff, or depreciation of machinery. They remain constant regardless of the level of production.</li><li>Variable Costs (VC): These costs fluctuate with the level of output produced, including raw materials, hourly wages, energy, and packaging. As output increases, variable costs rise; as output falls, they decline.</li></ul><p>Total Cost (TC) = Fixed Cost (FC) + Variable Cost (VC)</p><h2 class=heading id=different-types-of-cost>Different types of Cost</h2><p>A) Real Cost<br>B) Economic Cost<br>C) Accounting Cost<br>D) Social Cost<br>E) Private Cost<br>F) Opportunity Cost<br>G) External Cost<br>H) Replacement Cost</p><h2 class=heading id=cost-function>Cost Function</h2><p>𝐶 = 𝐹 + 𝑉(𝑄)<br>where F is the fixed cost, and V(Q) is the variable cost depending on the output level Q</p><h2 class=heading id=total-cost>Total Cost</h2><p>TC = Total Fixed Cost (TFC) + Total Variable Cost (TVC)</p><h2 class=heading id=average-cost>Average Cost</h2><p>AC = TC / Quantity (Q)</p><h2 class=heading id=marginal-cost>Marginal Cost</h2><p>TC = Change in Total Cost / Change in Quantity</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit2/>← Unit 2</a>
 <a class=page-nav__next-link href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit6/>Unit 6 →</a></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
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@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 6 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content=" May 02, 2026 # Production Function # The production function states the functional relationship between the factors of production and the number of products.
+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 6 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="May 02, 2026 Production Function The production function states the functional relationship between the factors of production and the number of products.
 Q = f (L, C, N)
 Here, Q = Quantity of output, L = labour, C = capital, N = land.
-Time Elements in Production Function # A) Short run # In the short run, only some of the inputs can be varied, but not all. Some factors will remain fixed, and some will be variable."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit6/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 6"><meta property="og:description" content="May 02, 2026 # Production Function # The production function states the functional relationship between the factors of production and the number of products.
+Time Elements in Production Function A) Short run In the short run, only some of the inputs can be varied, but not all. Some factors will remain fixed, and some will be variable."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit6/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 6"><meta property="og:description" content="May 02, 2026 Production Function The production function states the functional relationship between the factors of production and the number of products.
 Q = f (L, C, N)
 Here, Q = Quantity of output, L = labour, C = capital, N = land.
-Time Elements in Production Function # A) Short run # In the short run, only some of the inputs can be varied, but not all. Some factors will remain fixed, and some will be variable."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 6"><meta itemprop=description content="May 02, 2026 # Production Function # The production function states the functional relationship between the factors of production and the number of products.
+Time Elements in Production Function A) Short run In the short run, only some of the inputs can be varied, but not all. Some factors will remain fixed, and some will be variable."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 6"><meta itemprop=description content="May 02, 2026 Production Function The production function states the functional relationship between the factors of production and the number of products.
 Q = f (L, C, N)
 Here, Q = Quantity of output, L = labour, C = capital, N = land.
-Time Elements in Production Function # A) Short run # In the short run, only some of the inputs can be varied, but not all. Some factors will remain fixed, and some will be variable."><meta itemprop=wordCount content="844"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,ET DCM1107"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
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 <a href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit6/>Unit 6</a> ›
 <span>Self</span></nav><div class=uninotes-meta><span class=uninotes-meta__pill>S1</span> <span class=uninotes-meta__pill>ET DCM1107</span>
-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 6</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#may-02-2026><em><strong>May 02, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#production-function>Production Function</a></li><li><a href=#time-elements-in-production-function>Time Elements in Production Function</a><ul><li><a href=#a-short-run>A) Short run</a></li><li><a href=#b-long-run>B) Long run</a></li><li><a href=#c-very-long-run>C) Very long run</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#three-aspects-of-the-production-function>Three Aspects of the Production Function</a><ul><li><a href=#a-total-production-tp>A) Total Production (TP)</a></li><li><a href=#b-average-production-ap>B) Average Production (AP)</a></li><li><a href=#c-marginal-production-mp>C) Marginal Production (MP)</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#isoquants>Isoquants</a></li><li><a href=#types-of-isoquant-curves>Types of Isoquant Curves</a><ul><li><a href=#a-linear-isoquant-curve>A) Linear Isoquant Curve</a></li><li><a href=#b-right-angle-isoquant-curve>B) Right Angle Isoquant Curve</a></li><li><a href=#c-kinked-isoquant-curve>C) Kinked Isoquant Curve</a></li><li><a href=#d-convex-isoquant-curve>D) Convex Isoquant Curve</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#characteristics-of-isoquant-curves>Characteristics of Isoquant Curves</a></li><li><a href=#marginal-rate-of-technical-substitution>Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution</a></li><li><a href=#revenue>Revenue</a><ul><li><a href=#a-total-revenue>A) Total Revenue:</a></li><li><a href=#b-average-revenue>B) Average Revenue:</a></li><li><a href=#c-marginal-revenue>C) Marginal Revenue:</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=may-02-2026><em><strong>May 02, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#may-02-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=production-function>Production Function<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#production-function>#</a></span></h2><p>The production function states the functional relationship between the factors of production and the number of products.</p><p>Q = f (L, C, N)<br>Here, Q = Quantity of output, L = labour, C = capital, N = land.</p><h2 class=heading id=time-elements-in-production-function>Time Elements in Production Function<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#time-elements-in-production-function>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=a-short-run>A) Short run<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-short-run>#</a></span></h3><p>In the short run, only some of the inputs can be varied, but not all. Some factors will remain fixed, and some will be variable.</p><h3 class=heading id=b-long-run>B) Long run<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-long-run>#</a></span></h3><p>In this period, not only can variable factors be increased or decreased, but fixed factors
-can also be changed. In other words, all factors of production can be varied.</p><h3 class=heading id=c-very-long-run>C) Very long run<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#c-very-long-run>#</a></span></h3><p>This time period is so long that even the state of technology is also changed. Such technological changes are initiated by a long process of continuous research and development and it takes a very long time to apply.</p><h2 class=heading id=three-aspects-of-the-production-function>Three Aspects of the Production Function<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#three-aspects-of-the-production-function>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=a-total-production-tp>A) Total Production (TP)<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-total-production-tp>#</a></span></h3><p>Total production refers to the total units of output produced per unit of time by all factor inputs. In the short run, the total output increases because of the alteration in the variable factor inputs, shown mathematically in the equation:</p><p>TP = f (QVF)<br>Where, f = functional relationship, QVF = the quantity of variable factors.</p><h3 class=heading id=b-average-production-ap>B) Average Production (AP)<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-average-production-ap>#</a></span></h3><p>AP = TP/QVF<br>Where, TP = Total Production, QVF = the quantify of variable factors.</p><h3 class=heading id=c-marginal-production-mp>C) Marginal Production (MP)<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#c-marginal-production-mp>#</a></span></h3><p>Marginal production refers to the additional units produced with the usage of the last variable factor. In other words, it is the change in total production that takes place due to the addition of a variable factor. All other factors remain constant, and the addition realized in the total product is the marginal product (M.P.). Mathematically, it is shown as:</p><p>MP = n – 1<br>Where, MP = Marginal Production, n = total output increased due to the addition of one unit of the variable factor (n - 1 = total no. of factors before the increase of a marginal unit).</p><h2 class=heading id=isoquants>Isoquants<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#isoquants>#</a></span></h2><p>An isoquant is a locus of points that represent the different technically efficient ways of combining the factors of production for producing a fixed level of output. Isoquant term is taken from a Greek word ‘iso’, which implies ‘equal’, and ‘quants’, which means ‘quantity’. The isoquant curve is known as the ‘equal product curve’ or production indifference curve. An isoquant curve presents the locus of points that indicate various combinations of two inputs – capital and labour, producing a specific quantity of output or another combination which produces the same output.</p><h2 class=heading id=types-of-isoquant-curves>Types of Isoquant Curves<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#types-of-isoquant-curves>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=a-linear-isoquant-curve>A) Linear Isoquant Curve<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-linear-isoquant-curve>#</a></span></h3><p>This curve is a straight line curve. It implies that by employing either capital or labour through various combinations, any quantity can be produced.</p><h3 class=heading id=b-right-angle-isoquant-curve>B) Right Angle Isoquant Curve<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-right-angle-isoquant-curve>#</a></span></h3><p>According to this type of isoquant curve, there is substitution between the factors of production, and they have a major complementary nature between them. This means that there is only a single way of manufacturing any one commodity. This form of the curve is also referred to as the ‘Leontief Iso-quant’ or ‘input-output isoquant’ right-angled curve.</p><h3 class=heading id=c-kinked-isoquant-curve>C) Kinked Isoquant Curve<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#c-kinked-isoquant-curve>#</a></span></h3><p>In this form of the curve, there is a limited substitutability between the different factors of production, and this substitution of factors can be observed at the kinks because there are not many processes involved in producing any one commodity. A kinked isoquant curve is also called ‘activity analysis programming isoquant or linear programming isoquant’.</p><h3 class=heading id=d-convex-isoquant-curve>D) Convex Isoquant Curve<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#d-convex-isoquant-curve>#</a></span></h3><p>In this form of isoquant curve, the factors of production can be substituted with each other only to a certain level. This type of isoquant curve is in a convex shape and is smooth at the origin.</p><h2 class=heading id=characteristics-of-isoquant-curves>Characteristics of Isoquant Curves<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#characteristics-of-isoquant-curves>#</a></span></h2><ul><li>Isoquant curves slope downwards.</li><li>Isoquant curves are convex to the origin.</li><li>Isoquant curves do not intersect each other.</li><li>A higher isoquant shows a higher level of output.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=marginal-rate-of-technical-substitution>Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#marginal-rate-of-technical-substitution>#</a></span></h2><p>The MRTS is a theory in economics that is used to show the rate at which one factor of input should decrease to maintain the same level of output when another factor is increased.</p><p>MRTS = MPL/MPK</p><p>Where, MPL = Marginal Product of Labour, MPK = Marginal Product of Capital.</p><h2 class=heading id=revenue>Revenue<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#revenue>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=a-total-revenue>A) Total Revenue:<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-total-revenue>#</a></span></h3><p>TR = AR × Q</p><p>Where, TR is Total Revenue, AR = Average Revenue, Q = Output.</p><h3 class=heading id=b-average-revenue>B) Average Revenue:<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-average-revenue>#</a></span></h3><p>AR = TR/Q</p><p>Where, AR = Average Revenue, TR = Total Revenue, Q = Output.</p><h3 class=heading id=c-marginal-revenue>C) Marginal Revenue:<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#c-marginal-revenue>#</a></span></h3><p>Marginal revenue is the net revenue obtained by selling an extra unit of the concerned commodity. It is the addition made to the total revenue by selling one more unit of the goods. Marginal revenue is computed by the division of the change in the rate of total revenue by the change in the rate of quantity.</p><p>MR = ΔTR/ΔQ (Marginal Revenue = Change in Total Revenue/Change in Quantity)</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit5/>← Unit 5</a>
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 6</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#may-02-2026><em><strong>May 02, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#production-function>Production Function</a></li><li><a href=#time-elements-in-production-function>Time Elements in Production Function</a><ul><li><a href=#a-short-run>A) Short run</a></li><li><a href=#b-long-run>B) Long run</a></li><li><a href=#c-very-long-run>C) Very long run</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#three-aspects-of-the-production-function>Three Aspects of the Production Function</a><ul><li><a href=#a-total-production-tp>A) Total Production (TP)</a></li><li><a href=#b-average-production-ap>B) Average Production (AP)</a></li><li><a href=#c-marginal-production-mp>C) Marginal Production (MP)</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#isoquants>Isoquants</a></li><li><a href=#types-of-isoquant-curves>Types of Isoquant Curves</a><ul><li><a href=#a-linear-isoquant-curve>A) Linear Isoquant Curve</a></li><li><a href=#b-right-angle-isoquant-curve>B) Right Angle Isoquant Curve</a></li><li><a href=#c-kinked-isoquant-curve>C) Kinked Isoquant Curve</a></li><li><a href=#d-convex-isoquant-curve>D) Convex Isoquant Curve</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#characteristics-of-isoquant-curves>Characteristics of Isoquant Curves</a></li><li><a href=#marginal-rate-of-technical-substitution>Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution</a></li><li><a href=#revenue>Revenue</a><ul><li><a href=#a-total-revenue>A) Total Revenue:</a></li><li><a href=#b-average-revenue>B) Average Revenue:</a></li><li><a href=#c-marginal-revenue>C) Marginal Revenue:</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=may-02-2026><em><strong>May 02, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=production-function>Production Function</h2><p>The production function states the functional relationship between the factors of production and the number of products.</p><p>Q = f (L, C, N)<br>Here, Q = Quantity of output, L = labour, C = capital, N = land.</p><h2 class=heading id=time-elements-in-production-function>Time Elements in Production Function</h2><h3 class=heading id=a-short-run>A) Short run</h3><p>In the short run, only some of the inputs can be varied, but not all. Some factors will remain fixed, and some will be variable.</p><h3 class=heading id=b-long-run>B) Long run</h3><p>In this period, not only can variable factors be increased or decreased, but fixed factors
+can also be changed. In other words, all factors of production can be varied.</p><h3 class=heading id=c-very-long-run>C) Very long run</h3><p>This time period is so long that even the state of technology is also changed. Such technological changes are initiated by a long process of continuous research and development and it takes a very long time to apply.</p><h2 class=heading id=three-aspects-of-the-production-function>Three Aspects of the Production Function</h2><h3 class=heading id=a-total-production-tp>A) Total Production (TP)</h3><p>Total production refers to the total units of output produced per unit of time by all factor inputs. In the short run, the total output increases because of the alteration in the variable factor inputs, shown mathematically in the equation:</p><p>TP = f (QVF)<br>Where, f = functional relationship, QVF = the quantity of variable factors.</p><h3 class=heading id=b-average-production-ap>B) Average Production (AP)</h3><p>AP = TP/QVF<br>Where, TP = Total Production, QVF = the quantify of variable factors.</p><h3 class=heading id=c-marginal-production-mp>C) Marginal Production (MP)</h3><p>Marginal production refers to the additional units produced with the usage of the last variable factor. In other words, it is the change in total production that takes place due to the addition of a variable factor. All other factors remain constant, and the addition realized in the total product is the marginal product (M.P.). Mathematically, it is shown as:</p><p>MP = n – 1<br>Where, MP = Marginal Production, n = total output increased due to the addition of one unit of the variable factor (n - 1 = total no. of factors before the increase of a marginal unit).</p><h2 class=heading id=isoquants>Isoquants</h2><p>An isoquant is a locus of points that represent the different technically efficient ways of combining the factors of production for producing a fixed level of output. Isoquant term is taken from a Greek word ‘iso’, which implies ‘equal’, and ‘quants’, which means ‘quantity’. The isoquant curve is known as the ‘equal product curve’ or production indifference curve. An isoquant curve presents the locus of points that indicate various combinations of two inputs – capital and labour, producing a specific quantity of output or another combination which produces the same output.</p><h2 class=heading id=types-of-isoquant-curves>Types of Isoquant Curves</h2><h3 class=heading id=a-linear-isoquant-curve>A) Linear Isoquant Curve</h3><p>This curve is a straight line curve. It implies that by employing either capital or labour through various combinations, any quantity can be produced.</p><h3 class=heading id=b-right-angle-isoquant-curve>B) Right Angle Isoquant Curve</h3><p>According to this type of isoquant curve, there is substitution between the factors of production, and they have a major complementary nature between them. This means that there is only a single way of manufacturing any one commodity. This form of the curve is also referred to as the ‘Leontief Iso-quant’ or ‘input-output isoquant’ right-angled curve.</p><h3 class=heading id=c-kinked-isoquant-curve>C) Kinked Isoquant Curve</h3><p>In this form of the curve, there is a limited substitutability between the different factors of production, and this substitution of factors can be observed at the kinks because there are not many processes involved in producing any one commodity. A kinked isoquant curve is also called ‘activity analysis programming isoquant or linear programming isoquant’.</p><h3 class=heading id=d-convex-isoquant-curve>D) Convex Isoquant Curve</h3><p>In this form of isoquant curve, the factors of production can be substituted with each other only to a certain level. This type of isoquant curve is in a convex shape and is smooth at the origin.</p><h2 class=heading id=characteristics-of-isoquant-curves>Characteristics of Isoquant Curves</h2><ul><li>Isoquant curves slope downwards.</li><li>Isoquant curves are convex to the origin.</li><li>Isoquant curves do not intersect each other.</li><li>A higher isoquant shows a higher level of output.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=marginal-rate-of-technical-substitution>Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution</h2><p>The MRTS is a theory in economics that is used to show the rate at which one factor of input should decrease to maintain the same level of output when another factor is increased.</p><p>MRTS = MPL/MPK</p><p>Where, MPL = Marginal Product of Labour, MPK = Marginal Product of Capital.</p><h2 class=heading id=revenue>Revenue</h2><h3 class=heading id=a-total-revenue>A) Total Revenue:</h3><p>TR = AR × Q</p><p>Where, TR is Total Revenue, AR = Average Revenue, Q = Output.</p><h3 class=heading id=b-average-revenue>B) Average Revenue:</h3><p>AR = TR/Q</p><p>Where, AR = Average Revenue, TR = Total Revenue, Q = Output.</p><h3 class=heading id=c-marginal-revenue>C) Marginal Revenue:</h3><p>Marginal revenue is the net revenue obtained by selling an extra unit of the concerned commodity. It is the addition made to the total revenue by selling one more unit of the goods. Marginal revenue is computed by the division of the change in the rate of total revenue by the change in the rate of quantity.</p><p>MR = ΔTR/ΔQ (Marginal Revenue = Change in Total Revenue/Change in Quantity)</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit5/>← Unit 5</a>
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-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 7 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content=" May 08, 2026 # Types of Capital # A) Owned/Borrowed Capital.
+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 7 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="May 08, 2026 Types of Capital A) Owned/Borrowed Capital.
 B) Fixed/Floating Capital.
 C) Working Capital.
 D) Gross Working Capital.
 E) Net Working Capital.
 F) Net Operating Working Capital.
-Types of Revenue # A) Operating Revenue # Sales Revenue. Service Revenue. B) Gross Revenue # Gross revenue, often known as gross sales, is the entire amount of money your firm makes in a given accounting period before any deductions."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit7/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 7"><meta property="og:description" content="May 08, 2026 # Types of Capital # A) Owned/Borrowed Capital.
+Types of Revenue A) Operating Revenue Sales Revenue. Service Revenue. B) Gross Revenue Gross revenue, often known as gross sales, is the entire amount of money your firm makes in a given accounting period before any deductions.
+C) Net Revenue The value of a company’s income after discounts, item returns, and business expenditures like commissions is referred to as net revenue or net sales."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit7/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 7"><meta property="og:description" content="May 08, 2026 Types of Capital A) Owned/Borrowed Capital.
 B) Fixed/Floating Capital.
 C) Working Capital.
 D) Gross Working Capital.
 E) Net Working Capital.
 F) Net Operating Working Capital.
-Types of Revenue # A) Operating Revenue # Sales Revenue. Service Revenue. B) Gross Revenue # Gross revenue, often known as gross sales, is the entire amount of money your firm makes in a given accounting period before any deductions."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 7"><meta itemprop=description content="May 08, 2026 # Types of Capital # A) Owned/Borrowed Capital.
+Types of Revenue A) Operating Revenue Sales Revenue. Service Revenue. B) Gross Revenue Gross revenue, often known as gross sales, is the entire amount of money your firm makes in a given accounting period before any deductions.
+C) Net Revenue The value of a company’s income after discounts, item returns, and business expenditures like commissions is referred to as net revenue or net sales."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 7"><meta itemprop=description content="May 08, 2026 Types of Capital A) Owned/Borrowed Capital.
 B) Fixed/Floating Capital.
 C) Working Capital.
 D) Gross Working Capital.
 E) Net Working Capital.
 F) Net Operating Working Capital.
-Types of Revenue # A) Operating Revenue # Sales Revenue. Service Revenue. B) Gross Revenue # Gross revenue, often known as gross sales, is the entire amount of money your firm makes in a given accounting period before any deductions."><meta itemprop=wordCount content="259"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,ET DCM1107"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
+Types of Revenue A) Operating Revenue Sales Revenue. Service Revenue. B) Gross Revenue Gross revenue, often known as gross sales, is the entire amount of money your firm makes in a given accounting period before any deductions.
+C) Net Revenue The value of a company’s income after discounts, item returns, and business expenditures like commissions is referred to as net revenue or net sales."><meta itemprop=wordCount content="247"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,ET DCM1107"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
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 <a href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit7/>Unit 7</a> ›
 <span>Self</span></nav><div class=uninotes-meta><span class=uninotes-meta__pill>S1</span> <span class=uninotes-meta__pill>ET DCM1107</span>
-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 7</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#may-08-2026><em><strong>May 08, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#types-of-capital>Types of Capital</a></li><li><a href=#types-of-revenue>Types of Revenue</a><ul><li><a href=#a-operating-revenue>A) Operating Revenue</a></li><li><a href=#b-gross-revenue>B) Gross Revenue</a></li><li><a href=#c-net-revenue>C) Net Revenue</a></li><li><a href=#d-deferred-revenue>D) Deferred Revenue</a></li><li><a href=#e-accrued-revenue>E) Accrued Revenue</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#classification-of-expenditure>Classification of Expenditure</a></li><li><a href=#classification-of-receipts>Classification of Receipts</a></li><li><a href=#profitslosses>Profits/Losses</a></li><li><a href=#contingent>Contingent</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=may-08-2026><em><strong>May 08, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#may-08-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=types-of-capital>Types of Capital<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#types-of-capital>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Owned/Borrowed Capital.<br>B) Fixed/Floating Capital.<br>C) Working Capital.<br>D) Gross Working Capital.<br>E) Net Working Capital.<br>F) Net Operating Working Capital.</p><h2 class=heading id=types-of-revenue>Types of Revenue<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#types-of-revenue>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=a-operating-revenue>A) Operating Revenue<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-operating-revenue>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Sales Revenue.</li><li>Service Revenue.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-gross-revenue>B) Gross Revenue<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-gross-revenue>#</a></span></h3><p>Gross revenue, often known as gross sales, is the entire amount of money your firm makes in a given accounting period before any deductions.</p><h3 class=heading id=c-net-revenue>C) Net Revenue<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#c-net-revenue>#</a></span></h3><p>The value of a company&rsquo;s income after discounts, item returns, and business expenditures like commissions is referred to as net revenue or net sales.</p><h3 class=heading id=d-deferred-revenue>D) Deferred Revenue<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#d-deferred-revenue>#</a></span></h3><p>The income a firm makes before providing services or commodities to a client is referred to as deferred revenue or unearned revenue.</p><h3 class=heading id=e-accrued-revenue>E) Accrued Revenue<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#e-accrued-revenue>#</a></span></h3><p>The income earned by a firm for supplying products or services that have not yet been paid for by a client. It&rsquo;s income that a company recognises but has yet to realise.</p><h2 class=heading id=classification-of-expenditure>Classification of Expenditure<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#classification-of-expenditure>#</a></span></h2><p><strong>A) Capital Expenditure.</strong><br><strong>B) Revenue Expenditure.</strong><br><strong>C) Deferred Revenue Expenditure:</strong></p><p>Deferred revenue expenditure refers to a type of spending that is revenue in nature but whose benefits last for more than one accounting period. Although the entire amount is usually spent in a single year, it is not fully charged to the Profit & Loss Account in that year because the benefit will be enjoyed over several future periods.</p><h2 class=heading id=classification-of-receipts>Classification of Receipts<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#classification-of-receipts>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Revenue Receipts.<br>B) Capital Receipts.</p><h2 class=heading id=profitslosses>Profits/Losses<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#profitslosses>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Capital Profits/Losses.<br>B) Revenue Profits/Losses.</p><h2 class=heading id=contingent>Contingent<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#contingent>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Contingent Assets.<br>B) Contingent Liabilities.</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit6/>← Unit 6</a>
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 7</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#may-08-2026><em><strong>May 08, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#types-of-capital>Types of Capital</a></li><li><a href=#types-of-revenue>Types of Revenue</a><ul><li><a href=#a-operating-revenue>A) Operating Revenue</a></li><li><a href=#b-gross-revenue>B) Gross Revenue</a></li><li><a href=#c-net-revenue>C) Net Revenue</a></li><li><a href=#d-deferred-revenue>D) Deferred Revenue</a></li><li><a href=#e-accrued-revenue>E) Accrued Revenue</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#classification-of-expenditure>Classification of Expenditure</a></li><li><a href=#classification-of-receipts>Classification of Receipts</a></li><li><a href=#profitslosses>Profits/Losses</a></li><li><a href=#contingent>Contingent</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=may-08-2026><em><strong>May 08, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=types-of-capital>Types of Capital</h2><p>A) Owned/Borrowed Capital.<br>B) Fixed/Floating Capital.<br>C) Working Capital.<br>D) Gross Working Capital.<br>E) Net Working Capital.<br>F) Net Operating Working Capital.</p><h2 class=heading id=types-of-revenue>Types of Revenue</h2><h3 class=heading id=a-operating-revenue>A) Operating Revenue</h3><ol><li>Sales Revenue.</li><li>Service Revenue.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-gross-revenue>B) Gross Revenue</h3><p>Gross revenue, often known as gross sales, is the entire amount of money your firm makes in a given accounting period before any deductions.</p><h3 class=heading id=c-net-revenue>C) Net Revenue</h3><p>The value of a company&rsquo;s income after discounts, item returns, and business expenditures like commissions is referred to as net revenue or net sales.</p><h3 class=heading id=d-deferred-revenue>D) Deferred Revenue</h3><p>The income a firm makes before providing services or commodities to a client is referred to as deferred revenue or unearned revenue.</p><h3 class=heading id=e-accrued-revenue>E) Accrued Revenue</h3><p>The income earned by a firm for supplying products or services that have not yet been paid for by a client. It&rsquo;s income that a company recognises but has yet to realise.</p><h2 class=heading id=classification-of-expenditure>Classification of Expenditure</h2><p><strong>A) Capital Expenditure.</strong><br><strong>B) Revenue Expenditure.</strong><br><strong>C) Deferred Revenue Expenditure:</strong></p><p>Deferred revenue expenditure refers to a type of spending that is revenue in nature but whose benefits last for more than one accounting period. Although the entire amount is usually spent in a single year, it is not fully charged to the Profit & Loss Account in that year because the benefit will be enjoyed over several future periods.</p><h2 class=heading id=classification-of-receipts>Classification of Receipts</h2><p>A) Revenue Receipts.<br>B) Capital Receipts.</p><h2 class=heading id=profitslosses>Profits/Losses</h2><p>A) Capital Profits/Losses.<br>B) Revenue Profits/Losses.</p><h2 class=heading id=contingent>Contingent</h2><p>A) Contingent Assets.<br>B) Contingent Liabilities.</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit6/>← Unit 6</a>
 <a class=page-nav__next-link href=/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit12/>Unit 12 →</a></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
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diff --git a/docs/uninotes/s1/ge-dcm1106/unit1/live/index.html b/docs/uninotes/s1/ge-dcm1106/unit1/live/index.html
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@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 1 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content=" April 12, 2026 # Theories on the Origin of Language # Types of Theories # A) Divine.
+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 1 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="April 12, 2026 Theories on the Origin of Language Types of Theories A) Divine.
 B) Bow-Bow.
 C) Pooh-Pooh.
 D) Ding-Dong.
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ G) Musical.
 H) Tool-Making.
 I) Evolutionary.
 J) Symbolic.
-K) Contemporary Perspective."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/ge-dcm1106/unit1/live/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 1"><meta property="og:description" content="April 12, 2026 # Theories on the Origin of Language # Types of Theories # A) Divine.
+K) Contemporary Perspective."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/ge-dcm1106/unit1/live/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 1"><meta property="og:description" content="April 12, 2026 Theories on the Origin of Language Types of Theories A) Divine.
 B) Bow-Bow.
 C) Pooh-Pooh.
 D) Ding-Dong.
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ G) Musical.
 H) Tool-Making.
 I) Evolutionary.
 J) Symbolic.
-K) Contemporary Perspective."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 1"><meta itemprop=description content="April 12, 2026 # Theories on the Origin of Language # Types of Theories # A) Divine.
+K) Contemporary Perspective."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 1"><meta itemprop=description content="April 12, 2026 Theories on the Origin of Language Types of Theories A) Divine.
 B) Bow-Bow.
 C) Pooh-Pooh.
 D) Ding-Dong.
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ G) Musical.
 H) Tool-Making.
 I) Evolutionary.
 J) Symbolic.
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 <a href=/uninotes/s1/ge-dcm1106/unit1/>Unit 1</a> ›
 <span>Live</span></nav><div class=uninotes-meta><span class=uninotes-meta__pill>S1</span> <span class=uninotes-meta__pill>GE DCM1106</span>
-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--live">Live</span></div><h1>Unit 1</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#theories-on-the-origin-of-language>Theories on the Origin of Language</a><ul><li><a href=#types-of-theories>Types of Theories</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#april-12-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=theories-on-the-origin-of-language>Theories on the Origin of Language<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#theories-on-the-origin-of-language>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=types-of-theories>Types of Theories<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#types-of-theories>#</a></span></h3><p>A) Divine.<br>B) Bow-Bow.<br>C) Pooh-Pooh.<br>D) Ding-Dong.<br>E) Gesture.<br>F) Yo-He-Ho.<br>G) Musical.<br>H) Tool-Making.<br>I) Evolutionary.<br>J) Symbolic.<br>K) Contemporary Perspective.</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__next-link href=/uninotes/s1/ge-dcm1106/qna/>QNA →</a></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--live">Live</span></div><h1>Unit 1</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#theories-on-the-origin-of-language>Theories on the Origin of Language</a><ul><li><a href=#types-of-theories>Types of Theories</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=theories-on-the-origin-of-language>Theories on the Origin of Language</h2><h3 class=heading id=types-of-theories>Types of Theories</h3><p>A) Divine.<br>B) Bow-Bow.<br>C) Pooh-Pooh.<br>D) Ding-Dong.<br>E) Gesture.<br>F) Yo-He-Ho.<br>G) Musical.<br>H) Tool-Making.<br>I) Evolutionary.<br>J) Symbolic.<br>K) Contemporary Perspective.</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__next-link href=/uninotes/s1/ge-dcm1106/qna/>QNA →</a></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
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-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--qna">QNA</span></div><h1>QNA</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#june-20-2026><em><strong>June 20, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#qna>QNA</a><ul><li><a href=#model-question-paper-5-marks-200-250-words>Model Question Paper 5 Marks (200-250 words)</a></li><li><a href=#model-question-paper-10-marks-400-500-words>Model Question Paper 10 Marks (400-500 words)</a></li><li><a href=#questions-from-previous-year-question-papers-5-marks>Questions from Previous Year Question Papers 5 Marks</a></li><li><a href=#questions-from-previous-year-question-papers-10-marks>Questions from Previous Year Question Papers 10 Marks</a></li><li><a href=#unit-1-long-answer-400-500-words>Unit 1 Long Answer (400-500 words)</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=june-20-2026><em><strong>June 20, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#june-20-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=qna>QNA<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#qna>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=model-question-paper-5-marks-200-250-words>Model Question Paper 5 Marks (200-250 words)<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#model-question-paper-5-marks-200-250-words>#</a></span></h3><p><strong>1. Describe the characteristics of management:</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p>Management is the process of planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling resources to achieve organizational objectives. It has several important characteristics:</p><p><strong>A) Goal Oriented:</strong> Management is always directed toward achieving specific goals. All managerial activities are planned and executed to accomplish the objectives of the organization efficiently and effectively.</p><p><strong>B) Pervasive:</strong> Management is required at all levels and in all types of organizations, whether business, educational, governmental, or social. Every organization needs management to coordinate its activities.</p><p><strong>C) Multidimensional:</strong> Management involves different aspects of organizational functioning:</p><p><strong>(i) Management of People:</strong> It focuses on motivating, guiding, and coordinating employees so that they can perform their duties effectively and contribute to organizational success.
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--qna">QNA</span></div><h1>QNA</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#june-20-2026><em><strong>June 20, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#qna>QNA</a><ul><li><a href=#model-question-paper-5-marks-200-250-words>Model Question Paper 5 Marks (200-250 words)</a></li><li><a href=#model-question-paper-10-marks-400-500-words>Model Question Paper 10 Marks (400-500 words)</a></li><li><a href=#questions-from-previous-year-question-papers-5-marks>Questions from Previous Year Question Papers 5 Marks</a></li><li><a href=#questions-from-previous-year-question-papers-10-marks>Questions from Previous Year Question Papers 10 Marks</a></li><li><a href=#unit-1-long-answer-400-500-words>Unit 1 Long Answer (400-500 words)</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=june-20-2026><em><strong>June 20, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=qna>QNA</h2><h3 class=heading id=model-question-paper-5-marks-200-250-words>Model Question Paper 5 Marks (200-250 words)</h3><p><strong>1. Describe the characteristics of management:</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p>Management is the process of planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling resources to achieve organizational objectives. It has several important characteristics:</p><p><strong>A) Goal Oriented:</strong> Management is always directed toward achieving specific goals. All managerial activities are planned and executed to accomplish the objectives of the organization efficiently and effectively.</p><p><strong>B) Pervasive:</strong> Management is required at all levels and in all types of organizations, whether business, educational, governmental, or social. Every organization needs management to coordinate its activities.</p><p><strong>C) Multidimensional:</strong> Management involves different aspects of organizational functioning:</p><p><strong>(i) Management of People:</strong> It focuses on motivating, guiding, and coordinating employees so that they can perform their duties effectively and contribute to organizational success.
 <strong>(ii) Management of Operations:</strong> It deals with managing production, resources, technology, and processes to ensure smooth and efficient operations.</p><p><strong>D) Continuous:</strong> Management is an ongoing process. Functions such as planning, organizing, directing, and controlling are performed continuously to keep the organization functioning effectively.</p><p><strong>E) Dynamic:</strong> Management adapts to changes in the internal and external environment. Managers modify strategies and decisions according to changing market conditions, technology, and customer needs.</p><p><strong>F) Group Activity:</strong> Management involves coordinating the efforts of different individuals working together in a group. It promotes teamwork and cooperation to achieve common goals.</p><p><strong>G) Intangible:</strong> Management cannot be seen or touched. Its presence is reflected through results such as increased productivity, employee satisfaction, and achievement of organizational objectives.</p><p>Thus, management is a goal-oriented, continuous, dynamic, and multidimensional activity essential for the success of every organization.</p><p><strong>2. Explain the skills that should be possessed by a manager.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p>A manager must possess several essential skills to perform duties effectively and achieve organizational goals. The major managerial skills are:</p><p><strong>A) Technical Skills:</strong></p><p>Technical skills refer to the knowledge and ability to use specific methods, processes, tools, and techniques related to a particular job. Managers need these skills to understand and supervise the work of employees effectively. They are especially important for lower-level managers.</p><p><strong>B) Human Skills:</strong></p><p>Human skills involve the ability to work with, motivate, communicate with, and lead people. A manager must build good relationships with employees, resolve conflicts, encourage teamwork, and create a positive work environment. These skills are essential at all levels of management.</p><p><strong>C) Conceptual Skills:</strong></p><p>Conceptual skills are the ability to understand the organization as a whole and recognize how different departments and activities are interconnected. Managers use these skills to analyze situations, solve complex problems, and make strategic decisions. They are particularly important for top-level managers.</p><p><strong>D) Communication Skills:</strong></p><p>Effective communication is necessary for conveying ideas, instructions, policies, and feedback clearly. Managers must be good listeners as well as speakers and writers to ensure smooth information flow within the organization.</p><p><strong>E) Decision-Making Skills:</strong></p><p>Managers regularly face situations that require choosing the best course of action. Good decision-making skills help them evaluate alternatives, solve problems, and achieve organizational objectives efficiently.</p><p><strong>Conclusion:</strong></p><p>A successful manager combines technical, human, conceptual, communication, and decision-making skills. These skills enable managers to lead employees effectively, handle challenges, and contribute to the overall success of the organization.</p><p><strong>3. Discuss the forces affecting management thoughts.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Forces Affecting Management Thoughts:</strong></p><p>Management thought has evolved over time due to various forces that influence the way organizations are managed. The major forces affecting management thoughts are:</p><p><strong>A) Social Forces:</strong>
 Changes in society, culture, education, values, and lifestyles influence management practices. Managers must adapt their approaches to meet the expectations of employees and society.</p><p><strong>B) Economic Forces:</strong>
 Economic conditions such as inflation, recession, globalization, and market competition affect organizational decisions and management strategies. Efficient use of resources becomes essential during economic changes.</p><p><strong>C) Technological Forces:</strong>
@@ -46,7 +49,7 @@ Planning strategies ensure the effective use of available resources such as manp
 Well-designed strategies provide a framework for decision-making. Managers can evaluate alternatives and choose the best course of action to achieve desired results.</p><p><strong>E) Improving Coordination:</strong>
 Planning promotes coordination among different departments and employees by ensuring that everyone works toward common organizational objectives.</p><p><strong>F) Enhancing Efficiency and Productivity:</strong>
 Strategic planning helps improve organizational efficiency by defining tasks, setting priorities, and establishing performance standards.</p><p><strong>G) Providing Control Measures:</strong>
-Planning sets benchmarks and performance standards, making it easier to monitor progress and take corrective actions whenever necessary.</p><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>The objectives of planning strategies are to achieve organizational goals, reduce uncertainty, utilize resources efficiently, improve coordination, support decision-making, enhance productivity, and provide effective control. Proper planning is essential for the long-term success and growth of any organization.</p><h3 class=heading id=model-question-paper-10-marks-400-500-words>Model Question Paper 10 Marks (400-500 words)<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#model-question-paper-10-marks-400-500-words>#</a></span></h3><p><strong>1. Discuss the benefits and limitations of MBO.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Benefits and Limitations of Management by Objectives (MBO):</strong></p><p>Management by Objectives (MBO) is a management technique developed by Peter Drucker. It involves setting specific objectives jointly by managers and employees and evaluating performance based on the achievement of these objectives. MBO helps organizations improve efficiency and employee involvement. However, it also has certain limitations.</p><p><strong>A) Clear Goals and Objectives:</strong>
+Planning sets benchmarks and performance standards, making it easier to monitor progress and take corrective actions whenever necessary.</p><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>The objectives of planning strategies are to achieve organizational goals, reduce uncertainty, utilize resources efficiently, improve coordination, support decision-making, enhance productivity, and provide effective control. Proper planning is essential for the long-term success and growth of any organization.</p><h3 class=heading id=model-question-paper-10-marks-400-500-words>Model Question Paper 10 Marks (400-500 words)</h3><p><strong>1. Discuss the benefits and limitations of MBO.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Benefits and Limitations of Management by Objectives (MBO):</strong></p><p>Management by Objectives (MBO) is a management technique developed by Peter Drucker. It involves setting specific objectives jointly by managers and employees and evaluating performance based on the achievement of these objectives. MBO helps organizations improve efficiency and employee involvement. However, it also has certain limitations.</p><p><strong>A) Clear Goals and Objectives:</strong>
 MBO helps in establishing clear and measurable goals. Employees understand what is expected of them, which improves focus and direction.</p><p><strong>B) Improves Employee Motivation:</strong>
 Since employees participate in setting objectives, they feel valued and motivated. This increases their commitment to achieving organizational goals.</p><p><strong>C) Better Performance Evaluation:</strong>
 MBO provides a clear basis for measuring employee performance. Evaluation becomes more objective because it is based on predetermined targets.</p><p><strong>D) Enhances Communication:</strong>
@@ -81,7 +84,7 @@ Once the channel is selected, the sender transmits the encoded message to the in
 The receiver obtains the message through the chosen communication channel. Successful communication requires that the receiver pay attention and actively receive the information being communicated.</p><p><strong>F) Decoding the Message:</strong>
 Decoding refers to the process by which the receiver interprets and understands the message. The receiver translates the symbols, words, or signs into meaningful information. Proper decoding is essential for accurate understanding.</p><p><strong>G) Feedback:</strong>
 After understanding the message, the receiver responds to the sender. This response is known as feedback. Feedback helps the sender determine whether the message has been understood correctly and whether any clarification is required.</p><p><strong>H) Noise or Barriers:</strong>
-During the communication process, various barriers such as language problems, misunderstandings, poor communication channels, distractions, and technical issues may interfere with the message. These barriers are known as noise and can affect communication effectiveness.</p><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>Communication in an organization involves a series of steps, including idea formation, encoding, channel selection, transmission, receiving, decoding, and feedback. Effective communication ensures that information is accurately conveyed and understood, leading to better coordination, decision-making, and organizational success. Proper management of communication barriers further enhances the effectiveness of the communication process.</p><h3 class=heading id=questions-from-previous-year-question-papers-5-marks>Questions from Previous Year Question Papers 5 Marks<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#questions-from-previous-year-question-papers-5-marks>#</a></span></h3><p><strong>1. Differenctiate between Formal and Informal Organisation. Mention any five.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Difference Between Formal and Informal Organisation:</strong></p><p>An organization can be classified into formal and informal organization. A formal organization is deliberately created by management to achieve specific objectives, whereas an informal organization develops naturally through social interactions among employees. The following table highlights the major differences between them:</p><div class=table-wrapper><table><thead><tr><th><strong>Basis</strong></th><th><strong>Formal Organisation</strong></th><th><strong>Informal Organisation</strong></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>A) Formation</strong></td><td>Created deliberately by management.</td><td>Develops naturally through social interactions.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>B) Structure</strong></td><td>Has a well-defined organizational structure.</td><td>Does not have a fixed or official structure.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>C) Authority</strong></td><td>Authority flows through a formal chain of command.</td><td>Influence is based on personal relationships and group acceptance.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>D) Communication</strong></td><td>Communication follows official channels.</td><td>Communication takes place through unofficial channels.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>E) Objective</strong></td><td>Aims at achieving organizational goals.</td><td>Aims at satisfying social and emotional needs of employees.</td></tr></tbody></table></div><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>Formal and informal organizations coexist in every organization. The formal organization ensures discipline, coordination, and achievement of objectives, while the informal organization promotes friendship, cooperation, and employee satisfaction. Together, they contribute to the efficient functioning and success of the organization.</p><p><strong>2. Write short note on Six C&rsquo;s of Decision Making.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Six C&rsquo;s of Decision Making:</strong></p><p>Decision making is an important function of management that involves selecting the best course of action from various alternatives. Effective decision making helps organizations achieve their objectives and solve problems efficiently. The Six C&rsquo;s of Decision Making provide a systematic approach to making sound and rational decisions.</p><p><strong>A) Construct a Clear Picture:</strong>
+During the communication process, various barriers such as language problems, misunderstandings, poor communication channels, distractions, and technical issues may interfere with the message. These barriers are known as noise and can affect communication effectiveness.</p><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>Communication in an organization involves a series of steps, including idea formation, encoding, channel selection, transmission, receiving, decoding, and feedback. Effective communication ensures that information is accurately conveyed and understood, leading to better coordination, decision-making, and organizational success. Proper management of communication barriers further enhances the effectiveness of the communication process.</p><h3 class=heading id=questions-from-previous-year-question-papers-5-marks>Questions from Previous Year Question Papers 5 Marks</h3><p><strong>1. Differenctiate between Formal and Informal Organisation. Mention any five.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Difference Between Formal and Informal Organisation:</strong></p><p>An organization can be classified into formal and informal organization. A formal organization is deliberately created by management to achieve specific objectives, whereas an informal organization develops naturally through social interactions among employees. The following table highlights the major differences between them:</p><div class=table-wrapper><table><thead><tr><th><strong>Basis</strong></th><th><strong>Formal Organisation</strong></th><th><strong>Informal Organisation</strong></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>A) Formation</strong></td><td>Created deliberately by management.</td><td>Develops naturally through social interactions.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>B) Structure</strong></td><td>Has a well-defined organizational structure.</td><td>Does not have a fixed or official structure.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>C) Authority</strong></td><td>Authority flows through a formal chain of command.</td><td>Influence is based on personal relationships and group acceptance.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>D) Communication</strong></td><td>Communication follows official channels.</td><td>Communication takes place through unofficial channels.</td></tr><tr><td><strong>E) Objective</strong></td><td>Aims at achieving organizational goals.</td><td>Aims at satisfying social and emotional needs of employees.</td></tr></tbody></table></div><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>Formal and informal organizations coexist in every organization. The formal organization ensures discipline, coordination, and achievement of objectives, while the informal organization promotes friendship, cooperation, and employee satisfaction. Together, they contribute to the efficient functioning and success of the organization.</p><p><strong>2. Write short note on Six C&rsquo;s of Decision Making.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Six C&rsquo;s of Decision Making:</strong></p><p>Decision making is an important function of management that involves selecting the best course of action from various alternatives. Effective decision making helps organizations achieve their objectives and solve problems efficiently. The Six C&rsquo;s of Decision Making provide a systematic approach to making sound and rational decisions.</p><p><strong>A) Construct a Clear Picture:</strong>
 The first step is to understand and define the problem clearly. Managers should gather relevant information and identify the issues that require attention.</p><p><strong>B) Compile a List of Alternatives:</strong>
 After identifying the problem, managers should develop various possible alternatives or solutions. Considering multiple options increases the chances of making a better decision.</p><p><strong>C) Collect Information:</strong>
 Relevant facts, data, and opinions should be collected for each alternative. Accurate information helps managers evaluate options effectively and reduce uncertainty.</p><p><strong>D) Compare the Alternatives:</strong>
@@ -114,7 +117,7 @@ Employees feel valued when their opinions are considered. This improves morale,
 Since decisions are made after consulting group members, a variety of ideas and viewpoints are considered, resulting in better-quality decisions.</p><p><strong>D) Demerit – Time-Consuming:</strong>
 Democratic leadership requires discussion and consultation with employees. This process can be time-consuming and may delay decision-making.</p><p><strong>E) Demerit – Possibility of Conflicts:</strong>
 Different opinions among group members may lead to disagreements and conflicts, making it difficult to reach a consensus.</p><p><strong>F) Demerit – Not Suitable for Emergencies:</strong>
-In urgent situations, quick decisions are required. Democratic leadership may not be effective because the consultation process takes time.</p><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>Democratic leadership is an effective style that promotes employee participation, motivation, and better decision-making. However, it also has limitations such as being time-consuming, creating conflicts, and being unsuitable for emergency situations. Therefore, managers should use this leadership style according to the needs and circumstances of the organization.</p><h3 class=heading id=questions-from-previous-year-question-papers-10-marks>Questions from Previous Year Question Papers 10 Marks<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#questions-from-previous-year-question-papers-10-marks>#</a></span></h3><p><strong>1. Briefly describe the principles of management as laid down by Henri Fayol.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Principles of Management as Laid Down by Henri Fayol:</strong></p><p>Henri Fayol, a French industrialist and management theorist, is known as the father of modern management. He developed fourteen principles of management that serve as general guidelines for managers in organizing and managing activities effectively. These principles help improve efficiency, coordination, and organizational performance.</p><p><strong>A) Division of Work:</strong>
+In urgent situations, quick decisions are required. Democratic leadership may not be effective because the consultation process takes time.</p><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>Democratic leadership is an effective style that promotes employee participation, motivation, and better decision-making. However, it also has limitations such as being time-consuming, creating conflicts, and being unsuitable for emergency situations. Therefore, managers should use this leadership style according to the needs and circumstances of the organization.</p><h3 class=heading id=questions-from-previous-year-question-papers-10-marks>Questions from Previous Year Question Papers 10 Marks</h3><p><strong>1. Briefly describe the principles of management as laid down by Henri Fayol.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Principles of Management as Laid Down by Henri Fayol:</strong></p><p>Henri Fayol, a French industrialist and management theorist, is known as the father of modern management. He developed fourteen principles of management that serve as general guidelines for managers in organizing and managing activities effectively. These principles help improve efficiency, coordination, and organizational performance.</p><p><strong>A) Division of Work:</strong>
 Work should be divided among individuals according to their skills and specialization. Specialization increases efficiency and productivity.</p><p><strong>B) Authority and Responsibility:</strong>
 Managers should have the authority to give orders and the responsibility to ensure that tasks are completed properly. Authority and responsibility should go hand in hand.</p><p><strong>C) Discipline:</strong>
 Employees should follow organizational rules, regulations, and agreements. Discipline is essential for maintaining order and smooth functioning.</p><p><strong>D) Unity of Command:</strong>
@@ -163,7 +166,7 @@ He conducted time and motion studies to identify the best method of performing t
 Taylor introduced functional foremanship, where specialized supervisors were assigned specific responsibilities. This improved supervision and enhanced worker performance.</p><p><strong>D) Differential Piece Rate System:</strong>
 He developed the differential piece rate system, which rewarded efficient workers with higher wages and encouraged employees to increase productivity.</p><p><strong>E) Scientific Selection and Training:</strong>
 Taylor emphasized the scientific selection, placement, and training of workers. He believed that employees should be selected according to their abilities and properly trained to perform their jobs efficiently.</p><p><strong>F) Mental Revolution:</strong>
-Taylor advocated a mental revolution among workers and management. He encouraged cooperation, mutual trust, and understanding to achieve organizational goals.</p><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>F.W. Taylor&rsquo;s contributions laid the foundation of modern management practices. Through scientific management, time studies, functional foremanship, scientific selection, and performance-based incentives, he significantly improved efficiency and productivity. His ideas continue to influence management practices in organizations around the world.</p><h3 class=heading id=unit-1-long-answer-400-500-words>Unit 1 Long Answer (400-500 words)<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#unit-1-long-answer-400-500-words>#</a></span></h3><p><strong>1. Summarise the nature of management as a science and profession.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Nature of Management as a Science and Profession:</strong></p><p>Management is an essential activity that helps organizations achieve their goals through the efficient use of resources. Over the years, management has developed certain characteristics that make it comparable to both a science and a profession. While it possesses several features of a science, it also exhibits many qualities of a profession. Understanding the nature of management as a science and profession helps in appreciating its importance in modern organizations.</p><p><strong>A) Management as a Science:</strong>
+Taylor advocated a mental revolution among workers and management. He encouraged cooperation, mutual trust, and understanding to achieve organizational goals.</p><p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p><p>F.W. Taylor&rsquo;s contributions laid the foundation of modern management practices. Through scientific management, time studies, functional foremanship, scientific selection, and performance-based incentives, he significantly improved efficiency and productivity. His ideas continue to influence management practices in organizations around the world.</p><h3 class=heading id=unit-1-long-answer-400-500-words>Unit 1 Long Answer (400-500 words)</h3><p><strong>1. Summarise the nature of management as a science and profession.</strong></p><p><strong>Ans.</strong></p><p><strong>Nature of Management as a Science and Profession:</strong></p><p>Management is an essential activity that helps organizations achieve their goals through the efficient use of resources. Over the years, management has developed certain characteristics that make it comparable to both a science and a profession. While it possesses several features of a science, it also exhibits many qualities of a profession. Understanding the nature of management as a science and profession helps in appreciating its importance in modern organizations.</p><p><strong>A) Management as a Science:</strong>
 Management is considered a science because it is based on systematic knowledge and established principles. It involves the study of facts, observations, experiments, and cause-and-effect relationships. Management principles are developed through research and practical experience and can be applied in different organizational situations.</p><p><strong>B) Systematic Body of Knowledge:</strong>
 Like other sciences, management has a well-organized body of knowledge consisting of theories, concepts, principles, and techniques. These principles guide managers in making decisions and solving organizational problems.</p><p><strong>C) Based on Observation and Experimentation:</strong>
 Management principles are developed through continuous observation and analysis of organizational behavior. Managers use past experiences and research findings to improve their practices and achieve better results.</p><p><strong>D) Universal Application:</strong>
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 <a href=/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit1/>Unit 1</a> ›
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-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--live">Live</span></div><h1>Unit 1</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#introduction>Introduction</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#april-12-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=introduction>Introduction<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#introduction>#</a></span></h2><p>Management is a process where is an environment is developed to achieve the predefined goals and objectives through planning, organising, directing and controlling.</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__next-link href=/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit2/>Unit 2 →</a></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--live">Live</span></div><h1>Unit 1</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#introduction>Introduction</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=introduction>Introduction</h2><p>Management is a process where is an environment is developed to achieve the predefined goals and objectives through planning, organising, directing and controlling.</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__next-link href=/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit2/>Unit 2 →</a></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
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-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 1 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content=" April 5, 2026 # Characteristics of Management # A) Goal Oriented.
+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 1 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="April 5, 2026 Characteristics of Management A) Goal Oriented.
 B) Pervasive.
 C) Multidimentional:
 (i) Management of People.
@@ -7,15 +7,15 @@ D) Continuous.
 E) Dynamic.
 F) Group Activity.
 G) Intangible.
-Functions of Management # A) Planning.
+Functions of Management A) Planning.
 B) Organising.
 C) Staffing.
 D) Directing.
 E) Controlling.
-A) Planning # Determine the goals or mission of the organisation. Forecast future conditions. Select the best course of action. Formulate policies, procedures, budgets. B) Organising # Identify and analyse activities required to be operated on. Group similar activities. Assign duties to individuals. Delegate authority and responsibility to the individuals in managerial roles. Establish and announce clear authority relationships to ensure coordination and control. C) Staffing # Recruitment and selection. Training. Performance appraisal. D) Directing # Leadership and supervision. Motivation. Communication. E) Controlling # Establish performance standards. Measure performance. Compare performance with the standards. Identify reasons for deviations. Implement corrective actions. Use feedback to evaluate performance improvement. Significance of Management # A) Optimum unilization of resources.
+A) Planning Determine the goals or mission of the organisation. Forecast future conditions. Select the best course of action. Formulate policies, procedures, budgets. B) Organising Identify and analyse activities required to be operated on. Group similar activities. Assign duties to individuals. Delegate authority and responsibility to the individuals in managerial roles. Establish and announce clear authority relationships to ensure coordination and control. C) Staffing Recruitment and selection. Training. Performance appraisal. D) Directing Leadership and supervision. Motivation. Communication. E) Controlling Establish performance standards. Measure performance. Compare performance with the standards. Identify reasons for deviations. Implement corrective actions. Use feedback to evaluate performance improvement. Significance of Management A) Optimum unilization of resources.
 B) Minimisation of costs.
 C) Achievement of group goals.
-D) Organisational stability."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit1/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 1"><meta property="og:description" content="April 5, 2026 # Characteristics of Management # A) Goal Oriented.
+D) Organisational stability."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit1/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 1"><meta property="og:description" content="April 5, 2026 Characteristics of Management A) Goal Oriented.
 B) Pervasive.
 C) Multidimentional:
 (i) Management of People.
@@ -24,15 +24,15 @@ D) Continuous.
 E) Dynamic.
 F) Group Activity.
 G) Intangible.
-Functions of Management # A) Planning.
+Functions of Management A) Planning.
 B) Organising.
 C) Staffing.
 D) Directing.
 E) Controlling.
-A) Planning # Determine the goals or mission of the organisation. Forecast future conditions. Select the best course of action. Formulate policies, procedures, budgets. B) Organising # Identify and analyse activities required to be operated on. Group similar activities. Assign duties to individuals. Delegate authority and responsibility to the individuals in managerial roles. Establish and announce clear authority relationships to ensure coordination and control. C) Staffing # Recruitment and selection. Training. Performance appraisal. D) Directing # Leadership and supervision. Motivation. Communication. E) Controlling # Establish performance standards. Measure performance. Compare performance with the standards. Identify reasons for deviations. Implement corrective actions. Use feedback to evaluate performance improvement. Significance of Management # A) Optimum unilization of resources.
+A) Planning Determine the goals or mission of the organisation. Forecast future conditions. Select the best course of action. Formulate policies, procedures, budgets. B) Organising Identify and analyse activities required to be operated on. Group similar activities. Assign duties to individuals. Delegate authority and responsibility to the individuals in managerial roles. Establish and announce clear authority relationships to ensure coordination and control. C) Staffing Recruitment and selection. Training. Performance appraisal. D) Directing Leadership and supervision. Motivation. Communication. E) Controlling Establish performance standards. Measure performance. Compare performance with the standards. Identify reasons for deviations. Implement corrective actions. Use feedback to evaluate performance improvement. Significance of Management A) Optimum unilization of resources.
 B) Minimisation of costs.
 C) Achievement of group goals.
-D) Organisational stability."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 1"><meta itemprop=description content="April 5, 2026 # Characteristics of Management # A) Goal Oriented.
+D) Organisational stability."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 1"><meta itemprop=description content="April 5, 2026 Characteristics of Management A) Goal Oriented.
 B) Pervasive.
 C) Multidimentional:
 (i) Management of People.
@@ -41,15 +41,15 @@ D) Continuous.
 E) Dynamic.
 F) Group Activity.
 G) Intangible.
-Functions of Management # A) Planning.
+Functions of Management A) Planning.
 B) Organising.
 C) Staffing.
 D) Directing.
 E) Controlling.
-A) Planning # Determine the goals or mission of the organisation. Forecast future conditions. Select the best course of action. Formulate policies, procedures, budgets. B) Organising # Identify and analyse activities required to be operated on. Group similar activities. Assign duties to individuals. Delegate authority and responsibility to the individuals in managerial roles. Establish and announce clear authority relationships to ensure coordination and control. C) Staffing # Recruitment and selection. Training. Performance appraisal. D) Directing # Leadership and supervision. Motivation. Communication. E) Controlling # Establish performance standards. Measure performance. Compare performance with the standards. Identify reasons for deviations. Implement corrective actions. Use feedback to evaluate performance improvement. Significance of Management # A) Optimum unilization of resources.
+A) Planning Determine the goals or mission of the organisation. Forecast future conditions. Select the best course of action. Formulate policies, procedures, budgets. B) Organising Identify and analyse activities required to be operated on. Group similar activities. Assign duties to individuals. Delegate authority and responsibility to the individuals in managerial roles. Establish and announce clear authority relationships to ensure coordination and control. C) Staffing Recruitment and selection. Training. Performance appraisal. D) Directing Leadership and supervision. Motivation. Communication. E) Controlling Establish performance standards. Measure performance. Compare performance with the standards. Identify reasons for deviations. Implement corrective actions. Use feedback to evaluate performance improvement. Significance of Management A) Optimum unilization of resources.
 B) Minimisation of costs.
 C) Achievement of group goals.
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 <a href=/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit1/>Unit 1</a> ›
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-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 1</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-5-2026><em><strong>April 5, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#characteristics-of-management>Characteristics of Management</a></li><li><a href=#functions-of-management>Functions of Management</a><ul><li><a href=#a-planning>A) Planning</a></li><li><a href=#b-organising>B) Organising</a></li><li><a href=#c-staffing>C) Staffing</a></li><li><a href=#d-directing>D) Directing</a></li><li><a href=#e-controlling>E) Controlling</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#significance-of-management>Significance of Management</a></li><li><a href=#scope-of-management>Scope of Management</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-5-2026><em><strong>April 5, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#april-5-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=characteristics-of-management>Characteristics of Management<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#characteristics-of-management>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Goal Oriented.<br>B) Pervasive.<br>C) Multidimentional:<br>         (i) Management of People.<br>         (ii) Management of Operations.<br>D) Continuous.<br>E) Dynamic.<br>F) Group Activity.<br>G) Intangible.</p><h2 class=heading id=functions-of-management>Functions of Management<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#functions-of-management>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Planning.<br>B) Organising.<br>C) Staffing.<br>D) Directing.<br>E) Controlling.</p><h3 class=heading id=a-planning>A) Planning<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-planning>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Determine the goals or mission of the organisation.</li><li>Forecast future conditions.</li><li>Select the best course of action.</li><li>Formulate policies, procedures, budgets.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-organising>B) Organising<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-organising>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Identify and analyse activities required to be operated on.</li><li>Group similar activities.</li><li>Assign duties to individuals.</li><li>Delegate authority and responsibility to the individuals in managerial roles.</li><li>Establish and announce clear authority relationships to ensure coordination and control.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=c-staffing>C) Staffing<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#c-staffing>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Recruitment and selection.</li><li>Training.</li><li>Performance appraisal.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=d-directing>D) Directing<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#d-directing>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Leadership and supervision.</li><li>Motivation.</li><li>Communication.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=e-controlling>E) Controlling<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#e-controlling>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Establish performance standards.</li><li>Measure performance.</li><li>Compare performance with the standards.</li><li>Identify reasons for deviations.</li><li>Implement corrective actions.</li><li>Use feedback to evaluate performance improvement.</li></ol><h2 class=heading id=significance-of-management>Significance of Management<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#significance-of-management>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Optimum unilization of resources.<br>B) Minimisation of costs.<br>C) Achievement of group goals.<br>D) Organisational stability.</p><ul><li>Management depends on Effectiveness and Efficiency.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=scope-of-management>Scope of Management<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#scope-of-management>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Production Management.<br>B) Personal Management.<br>C) Marketing Management.<br>D) Financial Management.</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__next-link href=/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit2/>Unit 2 →</a></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 1</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-5-2026><em><strong>April 5, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#characteristics-of-management>Characteristics of Management</a></li><li><a href=#functions-of-management>Functions of Management</a><ul><li><a href=#a-planning>A) Planning</a></li><li><a href=#b-organising>B) Organising</a></li><li><a href=#c-staffing>C) Staffing</a></li><li><a href=#d-directing>D) Directing</a></li><li><a href=#e-controlling>E) Controlling</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#significance-of-management>Significance of Management</a></li><li><a href=#scope-of-management>Scope of Management</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-5-2026><em><strong>April 5, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=characteristics-of-management>Characteristics of Management</h2><p>A) Goal Oriented.<br>B) Pervasive.<br>C) Multidimentional:<br>         (i) Management of People.<br>         (ii) Management of Operations.<br>D) Continuous.<br>E) Dynamic.<br>F) Group Activity.<br>G) Intangible.</p><h2 class=heading id=functions-of-management>Functions of Management</h2><p>A) Planning.<br>B) Organising.<br>C) Staffing.<br>D) Directing.<br>E) Controlling.</p><h3 class=heading id=a-planning>A) Planning</h3><ol><li>Determine the goals or mission of the organisation.</li><li>Forecast future conditions.</li><li>Select the best course of action.</li><li>Formulate policies, procedures, budgets.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-organising>B) Organising</h3><ol><li>Identify and analyse activities required to be operated on.</li><li>Group similar activities.</li><li>Assign duties to individuals.</li><li>Delegate authority and responsibility to the individuals in managerial roles.</li><li>Establish and announce clear authority relationships to ensure coordination and control.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=c-staffing>C) Staffing</h3><ol><li>Recruitment and selection.</li><li>Training.</li><li>Performance appraisal.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=d-directing>D) Directing</h3><ol><li>Leadership and supervision.</li><li>Motivation.</li><li>Communication.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=e-controlling>E) Controlling</h3><ol><li>Establish performance standards.</li><li>Measure performance.</li><li>Compare performance with the standards.</li><li>Identify reasons for deviations.</li><li>Implement corrective actions.</li><li>Use feedback to evaluate performance improvement.</li></ol><h2 class=heading id=significance-of-management>Significance of Management</h2><p>A) Optimum unilization of resources.<br>B) Minimisation of costs.<br>C) Achievement of group goals.<br>D) Organisational stability.</p><ul><li>Management depends on Effectiveness and Efficiency.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=scope-of-management>Scope of Management</h2><p>A) Production Management.<br>B) Personal Management.<br>C) Marketing Management.<br>D) Financial Management.</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__next-link href=/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit2/>Unit 2 →</a></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
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-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 2 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content=" April 12, 2026 # Behaviors of Managers # A) Coaching managers # Coaching managers usually take on a teacher-like role, and they have an excellent understanding of the different stages of professional development. They love to motivate their employees to improve. They do this by helping them build strong personal relationships. Some of the most common qualities of a coaching manager include:
-Educating every employee of the organisation. Looking after the long-term professional development of their employees. Bringing the team together whilst also evaluating each individual’s progress. B) Authoritative managers # Authoritative managers make sure that they are handling most of the decision-making and task delegation by themselves, whilst also making sure that they are maintaining a strict protocol in their office. They most often focus on adhering to rules and making sure that employees complete tasks as per the company’s standard of quality. Some of the common qualities of an authoritative manager include:"><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit2/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 2"><meta property="og:description" content="April 12, 2026 # Behaviors of Managers # A) Coaching managers # Coaching managers usually take on a teacher-like role, and they have an excellent understanding of the different stages of professional development. They love to motivate their employees to improve. They do this by helping them build strong personal relationships. Some of the most common qualities of a coaching manager include:
-Educating every employee of the organisation. Looking after the long-term professional development of their employees. Bringing the team together whilst also evaluating each individual’s progress. B) Authoritative managers # Authoritative managers make sure that they are handling most of the decision-making and task delegation by themselves, whilst also making sure that they are maintaining a strict protocol in their office. They most often focus on adhering to rules and making sure that employees complete tasks as per the company’s standard of quality. Some of the common qualities of an authoritative manager include:"><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 2"><meta itemprop=description content="April 12, 2026 # Behaviors of Managers # A) Coaching managers # Coaching managers usually take on a teacher-like role, and they have an excellent understanding of the different stages of professional development. They love to motivate their employees to improve. They do this by helping them build strong personal relationships. Some of the most common qualities of a coaching manager include:
-Educating every employee of the organisation. Looking after the long-term professional development of their employees. Bringing the team together whilst also evaluating each individual’s progress. B) Authoritative managers # Authoritative managers make sure that they are handling most of the decision-making and task delegation by themselves, whilst also making sure that they are maintaining a strict protocol in their office. They most often focus on adhering to rules and making sure that employees complete tasks as per the company’s standard of quality. Some of the common qualities of an authoritative manager include:"><meta itemprop=wordCount content="1156"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,PBM DCM1110"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 2 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="April 12, 2026 Behaviors of Managers A) Coaching managers Coaching managers usually take on a teacher-like role, and they have an excellent understanding of the different stages of professional development. They love to motivate their employees to improve. They do this by helping them build strong personal relationships. Some of the most common qualities of a coaching manager include:
+Educating every employee of the organisation. Looking after the long-term professional development of their employees. Bringing the team together whilst also evaluating each individual’s progress. B) Authoritative managers Authoritative managers make sure that they are handling most of the decision-making and task delegation by themselves, whilst also making sure that they are maintaining a strict protocol in their office. They most often focus on adhering to rules and making sure that employees complete tasks as per the company’s standard of quality. Some of the common qualities of an authoritative manager include:"><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit2/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 2"><meta property="og:description" content="April 12, 2026 Behaviors of Managers A) Coaching managers Coaching managers usually take on a teacher-like role, and they have an excellent understanding of the different stages of professional development. They love to motivate their employees to improve. They do this by helping them build strong personal relationships. Some of the most common qualities of a coaching manager include:
+Educating every employee of the organisation. Looking after the long-term professional development of their employees. Bringing the team together whilst also evaluating each individual’s progress. B) Authoritative managers Authoritative managers make sure that they are handling most of the decision-making and task delegation by themselves, whilst also making sure that they are maintaining a strict protocol in their office. They most often focus on adhering to rules and making sure that employees complete tasks as per the company’s standard of quality. Some of the common qualities of an authoritative manager include:"><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 2"><meta itemprop=description content="April 12, 2026 Behaviors of Managers A) Coaching managers Coaching managers usually take on a teacher-like role, and they have an excellent understanding of the different stages of professional development. They love to motivate their employees to improve. They do this by helping them build strong personal relationships. Some of the most common qualities of a coaching manager include:
+Educating every employee of the organisation. Looking after the long-term professional development of their employees. Bringing the team together whilst also evaluating each individual’s progress. B) Authoritative managers Authoritative managers make sure that they are handling most of the decision-making and task delegation by themselves, whilst also making sure that they are maintaining a strict protocol in their office. They most often focus on adhering to rules and making sure that employees complete tasks as per the company’s standard of quality. Some of the common qualities of an authoritative manager include:"><meta itemprop=wordCount content="1135"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,PBM DCM1110"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
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 › <a href=/uninotes/s1/>S1</a> › <a href=/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/>PBM DCM1110</a> ›
 <a href=/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit2/>Unit 2</a> ›
 <span>Self</span></nav><div class=uninotes-meta><span class=uninotes-meta__pill>S1</span> <span class=uninotes-meta__pill>PBM DCM1110</span>
-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 2</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#behaviors-of-managers>Behaviors of Managers</a><ul><li><a href=#a-coaching-managers>A) Coaching managers</a></li><li><a href=#b-authoritative-managers>B) Authoritative managers</a></li><li><a href=#c-results-based-managers>C) Results-based managers</a></li><li><a href=#d-strategic-managers>D) Strategic managers</a></li><li><a href=#e-proactive-managers>E) Proactive managers</a></li><li><a href=#f-laissez-faire-managers>F) Laissez-faire managers</a></li><li><a href=#g-democratic-managers>G) Democratic managers</a></li><li><a href=#h-visionary-managers>H) Visionary managers</a></li><li><a href=#i-transformational-managers>I) Transformational managers</a></li><li><a href=#j-charismatic-managers>J) Charismatic managers</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#characteristics-of-managers>Characteristics of Managers</a></li><li><a href=#managerial-skills>Managerial Skills</a><ul><li><a href=#a-conceptual-skills>A) Conceptual Skills</a></li><li><a href=#b-human-skills>B) Human Skills</a></li><li><a href=#c-technical-skills>C) Technical Skills</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#roles-of-a-manager>Roles of a Manager</a><ul><li><a href=#a-interpersonal-roles>A) Interpersonal Roles</a></li><li><a href=#b-informational-roles>B) Informational Roles</a></li><li><a href=#c-decisional-roles>C) Decisional Roles</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#april-12-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=behaviors-of-managers>Behaviors of Managers<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#behaviors-of-managers>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=a-coaching-managers>A) Coaching managers<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-coaching-managers>#</a></span></h3><p>Coaching managers usually take on a teacher-like role, and they have an excellent understanding of
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 2</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#behaviors-of-managers>Behaviors of Managers</a><ul><li><a href=#a-coaching-managers>A) Coaching managers</a></li><li><a href=#b-authoritative-managers>B) Authoritative managers</a></li><li><a href=#c-results-based-managers>C) Results-based managers</a></li><li><a href=#d-strategic-managers>D) Strategic managers</a></li><li><a href=#e-proactive-managers>E) Proactive managers</a></li><li><a href=#f-laissez-faire-managers>F) Laissez-faire managers</a></li><li><a href=#g-democratic-managers>G) Democratic managers</a></li><li><a href=#h-visionary-managers>H) Visionary managers</a></li><li><a href=#i-transformational-managers>I) Transformational managers</a></li><li><a href=#j-charismatic-managers>J) Charismatic managers</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#characteristics-of-managers>Characteristics of Managers</a></li><li><a href=#managerial-skills>Managerial Skills</a><ul><li><a href=#a-conceptual-skills>A) Conceptual Skills</a></li><li><a href=#b-human-skills>B) Human Skills</a></li><li><a href=#c-technical-skills>C) Technical Skills</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#roles-of-a-manager>Roles of a Manager</a><ul><li><a href=#a-interpersonal-roles>A) Interpersonal Roles</a></li><li><a href=#b-informational-roles>B) Informational Roles</a></li><li><a href=#c-decisional-roles>C) Decisional Roles</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-12-2026><em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=behaviors-of-managers>Behaviors of Managers</h2><h3 class=heading id=a-coaching-managers>A) Coaching managers</h3><p>Coaching managers usually take on a teacher-like role, and they have an excellent understanding of
 the different stages of professional development. They love to motivate their employees to improve.
 They do this by helping them build strong personal relationships. Some of the most common
-qualities of a coaching manager include:</p><ul><li>Educating every employee of the organisation.</li><li>Looking after the long-term professional development of their employees.</li><li>Bringing the team together whilst also evaluating each individual&rsquo;s progress.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=b-authoritative-managers>B) Authoritative managers<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-authoritative-managers>#</a></span></h3><p>Authoritative managers make sure that they are handling most of the decision-making and task
+qualities of a coaching manager include:</p><ul><li>Educating every employee of the organisation.</li><li>Looking after the long-term professional development of their employees.</li><li>Bringing the team together whilst also evaluating each individual&rsquo;s progress.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=b-authoritative-managers>B) Authoritative managers</h3><p>Authoritative managers make sure that they are handling most of the decision-making and task
 delegation by themselves, whilst also making sure that they are maintaining a strict protocol in their
 office. They most often focus on adhering to rules and making sure that employees complete tasks
 as per the company’s standard of quality. Some of the common qualities of an authoritative manager
-include:</p><ul><li>Giving importance to rules and operation standards.</li><li>Motivating their employees to give their best and also holding employees accountable.</li><li>Taking disciplinary actions when necessary.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=c-results-based-managers>C) Results-based managers<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#c-results-based-managers>#</a></span></h3><p>Results-based managers mainly concentrate on whether or not employees meet their goals. They
+include:</p><ul><li>Giving importance to rules and operation standards.</li><li>Motivating their employees to give their best and also holding employees accountable.</li><li>Taking disciplinary actions when necessary.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=c-results-based-managers>C) Results-based managers</h3><p>Results-based managers mainly concentrate on whether or not employees meet their goals. They
 are more concerned with the completion of work by the employees rather than how they do it. This
 gives employees some power to make decisions and come up with their own methods for success.
-Some of the common qualities of a results-based manager include:</p><ul><li>Being lenient in terms of rules and protocols.</li><li>Finding out ways to ensure that their employees work most effectively.</li><li>Focusing only on completion of work, not on how it gets accomplished.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=d-strategic-managers>D) Strategic managers<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#d-strategic-managers>#</a></span></h3><p>Strategic managers build their management style around the end result that they want to achieve.
+Some of the common qualities of a results-based manager include:</p><ul><li>Being lenient in terms of rules and protocols.</li><li>Finding out ways to ensure that their employees work most effectively.</li><li>Focusing only on completion of work, not on how it gets accomplished.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=d-strategic-managers>D) Strategic managers</h3><p>Strategic managers build their management style around the end result that they want to achieve.
 They delegate authority to lower-level supervisors so they can focus on developing the ultimate
 long-term strategy for success. Some of the most common qualities of a strategic manager include:</p><ul><li>Delegating responsibility to lower-level supervisors but not otherwise strongly involved
 in day-to-day tasks.</li><li>Focusing on the overall goal of their projects rather than minor details.</li><li>Working independently to create plans for their employees that they can undertake on their
-own.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=e-proactive-managers>E) Proactive managers<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#e-proactive-managers>#</a></span></h3><p>Proactive managers are always offering help and advice. They also remain positive even in times of
+own.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=e-proactive-managers>E) Proactive managers</h3><p>Proactive managers are always offering help and advice. They also remain positive even in times of
 crisis. They typically focus on what actions they can take to overcome or solve any challenges that
 might arise. With a hands-on approach, they try to meet those challenges. Some of the most common
-qualities of a proactive manager include:</p><ul><li>Being enthusiastic about meeting goals through collaboration with employees.</li><li>Showing confidence in the abilities of their employees.</li><li>Being supportive of employees and always ready to help them.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=f-laissez-faire-managers>F) Laissez-faire managers<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#f-laissez-faire-managers>#</a></span></h3><p>Laissez-faire managers make sure that they meet their goals, but they typically do not offer much
+qualities of a proactive manager include:</p><ul><li>Being enthusiastic about meeting goals through collaboration with employees.</li><li>Showing confidence in the abilities of their employees.</li><li>Being supportive of employees and always ready to help them.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=f-laissez-faire-managers>F) Laissez-faire managers</h3><p>Laissez-faire managers make sure that they meet their goals, but they typically do not offer much
 help or supervision during work operations. They delegate most of the day-to-day and long-term
 responsibilities to their employees. If you prefer to work autonomously, you might work well under
-a laissez-faire manager. Some of the common qualities of a laissez-faire manager include:</p><ul><li>Remaining hands-off with daily performance.</li><li>Delegating responsibility to employees and stepping back.</li><li>Giving employees autonomy to make decisions and complete tasks on their own.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=g-democratic-managers>G) Democratic managers<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#g-democratic-managers>#</a></span></h3><p>Democratic managers listen to input given by employees and welcome the employees to be a part
+a laissez-faire manager. Some of the common qualities of a laissez-faire manager include:</p><ul><li>Remaining hands-off with daily performance.</li><li>Delegating responsibility to employees and stepping back.</li><li>Giving employees autonomy to make decisions and complete tasks on their own.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=g-democratic-managers>G) Democratic managers</h3><p>Democratic managers listen to input given by employees and welcome the employees to be a part
 of the decision-making process. They try to make every member of a team crucial to a project&rsquo;s
 completion. An office led by a democratic manager focuses on teamwork. Some of the common
-qualities of a democratic manager include:</p><ul><li>Open to suggestions and criticism.</li><li>Understanding of employees&rsquo; points of view.</li><li>Emphasising collaboration among employees and the team as a whole.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=h-visionary-managers>H) Visionary managers<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#h-visionary-managers>#</a></span></h3><p>Visionary managers rely on strategies to make a plan for their team, and then they ultimately allow
+qualities of a democratic manager include:</p><ul><li>Open to suggestions and criticism.</li><li>Understanding of employees&rsquo; points of view.</li><li>Emphasising collaboration among employees and the team as a whole.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=h-visionary-managers>H) Visionary managers</h3><p>Visionary managers rely on strategies to make a plan for their team, and then they ultimately allow
 their employees to work autonomously. However, they also check in with employees regularly to
 ensure that productivity is in line with their vision and goals. Some of the common qualities of a
-visionary manager include:</p><ul><li>Staying fair but also being serious about achieving desired results.</li><li>Offering quality feedback to the employees.</li><li>Trusting employees as long as they adhere to the well-planned strategy.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=i-transformational-managers>I) Transformational managers<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#i-transformational-managers>#</a></span></h3><p>Transformational managers are enthusiastic about the growth of their employees. They also learn
+visionary manager include:</p><ul><li>Staying fair but also being serious about achieving desired results.</li><li>Offering quality feedback to the employees.</li><li>Trusting employees as long as they adhere to the well-planned strategy.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=i-transformational-managers>I) Transformational managers</h3><p>Transformational managers are enthusiastic about the growth of their employees. They also learn
 how to adapt to changes in their industry. They motivate employees to go beyond their comfort
-zones and constantly improve. Some of the common qualities of a transformational manager include:</p><ul><li>Being creative in terms of approaches to new tasks and methods of operation.</li><li>Motivating and challenging employees to adapt to changes.</li><li>Being heavily involved in work processes.</li><li>Supporting employees.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=j-charismatic-managers>J) Charismatic managers<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#j-charismatic-managers>#</a></span></h3><p>Charismatic managers give priority to building strong personal relationships with their employees.
+zones and constantly improve. Some of the common qualities of a transformational manager include:</p><ul><li>Being creative in terms of approaches to new tasks and methods of operation.</li><li>Motivating and challenging employees to adapt to changes.</li><li>Being heavily involved in work processes.</li><li>Supporting employees.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=j-charismatic-managers>J) Charismatic managers</h3><p>Charismatic managers give priority to building strong personal relationships with their employees.
 They also try to cater to their employees&rsquo; needs whenever they can. This can motivate employees to
 strive to work effectively and efficiently in order to gratify their manager. Some of the common
-qualities of a charismatic manager include:</p><ul><li>Being friendly and charming when working with employees and supervisors.</li><li>Showing kindness to employees instead of being authoritative.</li><li>Providing constant support and help when necessary.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=characteristics-of-managers>Characteristics of Managers<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#characteristics-of-managers>#</a></span></h2><p>A) They are responsible for the performance of tasks.<br>B) They maintain balance between goals and define priorities.<br>C) They think rationally and conceptually.<br>D) They act as mediators.<br>E) They make complicated decisions.</p><h2 class=heading id=managerial-skills>Managerial Skills<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#managerial-skills>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=a-conceptual-skills>A) Conceptual Skills<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-conceptual-skills>#</a></span></h3><ul><li>Solving business problems by analysing information.</li><li>Identifying new opportunities and areas for innovation.</li><li>Recognising problem areas and developing solutions.</li><li>Selecting key information from large amounts of data.</li><li>Understanding how technology supports business operations.</li><li>Having a clear understanding of the organisation’s business model and goals.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=b-human-skills>B) Human Skills<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-human-skills>#</a></span></h3><ul><li>Interviewing and selecting employees.</li><li>Motivating and guiding team members.</li><li>Resolving conflicts and maintaining harmony.</li><li>Building partnerships and encouraging teamwork.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=c-technical-skills>C) Technical Skills<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#c-technical-skills>#</a></span></h3><ul><li>Using computer software or operating machinery.</li><li>Designing a brochure or preparing a financial report.</li><li>Training employees to use a new budgeting system.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=roles-of-a-manager>Roles of a Manager<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#roles-of-a-manager>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=a-interpersonal-roles>A) Interpersonal Roles<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-interpersonal-roles>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Figurehead- attending meetings, signing legal documents, welcoming visitors, or
-inaugurating company events.</li><li>Leader.</li><li>Liaison.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-informational-roles>B) Informational Roles<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-informational-roles>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Monitor - gathers information.</li><li>Disseminator - shares information.</li><li>Spokesperson - represents.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=c-decisional-roles>C) Decisional Roles<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#c-decisional-roles>#</a></span></h3><ol><li><p>Entrepreneur: The manager identifies opportunities for improvement and innovation. They take
+qualities of a charismatic manager include:</p><ul><li>Being friendly and charming when working with employees and supervisors.</li><li>Showing kindness to employees instead of being authoritative.</li><li>Providing constant support and help when necessary.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=characteristics-of-managers>Characteristics of Managers</h2><p>A) They are responsible for the performance of tasks.<br>B) They maintain balance between goals and define priorities.<br>C) They think rationally and conceptually.<br>D) They act as mediators.<br>E) They make complicated decisions.</p><h2 class=heading id=managerial-skills>Managerial Skills</h2><h3 class=heading id=a-conceptual-skills>A) Conceptual Skills</h3><ul><li>Solving business problems by analysing information.</li><li>Identifying new opportunities and areas for innovation.</li><li>Recognising problem areas and developing solutions.</li><li>Selecting key information from large amounts of data.</li><li>Understanding how technology supports business operations.</li><li>Having a clear understanding of the organisation’s business model and goals.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=b-human-skills>B) Human Skills</h3><ul><li>Interviewing and selecting employees.</li><li>Motivating and guiding team members.</li><li>Resolving conflicts and maintaining harmony.</li><li>Building partnerships and encouraging teamwork.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=c-technical-skills>C) Technical Skills</h3><ul><li>Using computer software or operating machinery.</li><li>Designing a brochure or preparing a financial report.</li><li>Training employees to use a new budgeting system.</li></ul><h2 class=heading id=roles-of-a-manager>Roles of a Manager</h2><h3 class=heading id=a-interpersonal-roles>A) Interpersonal Roles</h3><ol><li>Figurehead- attending meetings, signing legal documents, welcoming visitors, or
+inaugurating company events.</li><li>Leader.</li><li>Liaison.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-informational-roles>B) Informational Roles</h3><ol><li>Monitor - gathers information.</li><li>Disseminator - shares information.</li><li>Spokesperson - represents.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=c-decisional-roles>C) Decisional Roles</h3><ol><li><p>Entrepreneur: The manager identifies opportunities for improvement and innovation. They take
 the initiative to start new projects, introduce new products, or adopt better methods to improve
 efficiency and competitiveness.</p></li><li><p>Disturbance Handler: In this role, the manager deals with unexpected problems or conflicts.
 This may include resolving employee disputes, handling crises, or managing supply shortages.
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-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 3 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content=" April 15, 2026 # Classical approach comprised the following three approaches: # A) Scientific Management # In scientific management, scientific methods are used to study and analyse the problems in factories and businesses. It involves the use of rational methods, understanding issues, and finding relevant & practical solutions. The main contribution in scientific management is of Frederick Winslow Taylor, who is well renowned as ‘The father of scientific management’.
-B) Administration Management # It is mainly related to the performance of managers and has defined various functions of administration. In administration management, the emphasis is laid on evaluating the existing processes, identifying the underlying principles, and developing the management theories. These functions are interlinked and help managers perform effectively. The major contribution towards administration management is from Henry Fayol."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit3/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 3"><meta property="og:description" content="April 15, 2026 # Classical approach comprised the following three approaches: # A) Scientific Management # In scientific management, scientific methods are used to study and analyse the problems in factories and businesses. It involves the use of rational methods, understanding issues, and finding relevant & practical solutions. The main contribution in scientific management is of Frederick Winslow Taylor, who is well renowned as ‘The father of scientific management’.
-B) Administration Management # It is mainly related to the performance of managers and has defined various functions of administration. In administration management, the emphasis is laid on evaluating the existing processes, identifying the underlying principles, and developing the management theories. These functions are interlinked and help managers perform effectively. The major contribution towards administration management is from Henry Fayol."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 3"><meta itemprop=description content="April 15, 2026 # Classical approach comprised the following three approaches: # A) Scientific Management # In scientific management, scientific methods are used to study and analyse the problems in factories and businesses. It involves the use of rational methods, understanding issues, and finding relevant & practical solutions. The main contribution in scientific management is of Frederick Winslow Taylor, who is well renowned as ‘The father of scientific management’.
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+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 3 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="April 15, 2026 Classical approach comprised the following three approaches: A) Scientific Management In scientific management, scientific methods are used to study and analyse the problems in factories and businesses. It involves the use of rational methods, understanding issues, and finding relevant & practical solutions. The main contribution in scientific management is of Frederick Winslow Taylor, who is well renowned as ‘The father of scientific management’.
+B) Administration Management It is mainly related to the performance of managers and has defined various functions of administration. In administration management, the emphasis is laid on evaluating the existing processes, identifying the underlying principles, and developing the management theories. These functions are interlinked and help managers perform effectively. The major contribution towards administration management is from Henry Fayol."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit3/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 3"><meta property="og:description" content="April 15, 2026 Classical approach comprised the following three approaches: A) Scientific Management In scientific management, scientific methods are used to study and analyse the problems in factories and businesses. It involves the use of rational methods, understanding issues, and finding relevant & practical solutions. The main contribution in scientific management is of Frederick Winslow Taylor, who is well renowned as ‘The father of scientific management’.
+B) Administration Management It is mainly related to the performance of managers and has defined various functions of administration. In administration management, the emphasis is laid on evaluating the existing processes, identifying the underlying principles, and developing the management theories. These functions are interlinked and help managers perform effectively. The major contribution towards administration management is from Henry Fayol."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 3"><meta itemprop=description content="April 15, 2026 Classical approach comprised the following three approaches: A) Scientific Management In scientific management, scientific methods are used to study and analyse the problems in factories and businesses. It involves the use of rational methods, understanding issues, and finding relevant & practical solutions. The main contribution in scientific management is of Frederick Winslow Taylor, who is well renowned as ‘The father of scientific management’.
+B) Administration Management It is mainly related to the performance of managers and has defined various functions of administration. In administration management, the emphasis is laid on evaluating the existing processes, identifying the underlying principles, and developing the management theories. These functions are interlinked and help managers perform effectively. The major contribution towards administration management is from Henry Fayol."><meta itemprop=wordCount content="330"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,PBM DCM1110"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
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-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 3</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-15-2026><em><strong>April 15, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#classical-approach-comprised-the-following-three-approaches>Classical approach comprised the following three approaches:</a><ul><li><a href=#a-scientific-management>A) Scientific Management</a></li><li><a href=#b-administration-management>B) Administration Management</a></li><li><a href=#c-bureaucratic-management>C) Bureaucratic Management</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#mechanisms-of-scientific-management>Mechanisms of Scientific Management</a></li><li><a href=#henri-fayols-14-principles-of-management>Henri Fayol&rsquo;s 14 Principles of Management</a></li><li><a href=#3-types-of-authority-in-an-organisation-according-to-max-weber>3 types of Authority in an organisation according to Max Weber</a></li><li><a href=#features-of-legal-rational-bureaucracy>Features of Legal-Rational Bureaucracy</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-15-2026><em><strong>April 15, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#april-15-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=classical-approach-comprised-the-following-three-approaches>Classical approach comprised the following three approaches:<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#classical-approach-comprised-the-following-three-approaches>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=a-scientific-management>A) Scientific Management<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-scientific-management>#</a></span></h3><p>In scientific management, scientific methods are used to study and analyse the problems in factories and businesses. It involves the use of rational methods, understanding issues, and finding relevant & practical solutions. The main contribution in scientific management is of Frederick Winslow Taylor, who is well renowned as ‘The father of scientific management’.</p><h3 class=heading id=b-administration-management>B) Administration Management<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-administration-management>#</a></span></h3><p>It is mainly related to the performance of managers and has defined various functions of administration. In administration management, the emphasis is laid on evaluating the existing processes, identifying the underlying principles, and developing the management theories. These functions are interlinked and help managers perform effectively. The major contribution towards administration management is from Henry Fayol.</p><h3 class=heading id=c-bureaucratic-management>C) Bureaucratic Management<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#c-bureaucratic-management>#</a></span></h3><p>This approach was founded by Max Weber, who believed bureaucracy is the best for the optimum utilisation of resources in an organisation. Such an approach is generally followed in government and military organisations. Bureaucratic management has a well-defined hierarchy, lines of authority, and procedures. Various rules and procedures are formed in bureaucracy to guide the functioning of an organisation.</p><h2 class=heading id=mechanisms-of-scientific-management>Mechanisms of Scientific Management<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#mechanisms-of-scientific-management>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Separation of Planning and Doing.<br>B) Functional Foremanship - Training Department/Functional Department.<br>C) Job Analysis.<br>D) Standardisation.<br>E) Scientific Selection and Training of Workers.<br>F) Financial Incentives.<br>G) Economy.<br>H) Mental Revolution.</p><h2 class=heading id=henri-fayols-14-principles-of-management>Henri Fayol&rsquo;s 14 Principles of Management<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#henri-fayols-14-principles-of-management>#</a></span></h2><ol><li>Division of work.</li><li>Authority and responsibility.</li><li>Discipline.</li><li>Unity of command.</li><li>Unity of direction.</li><li>Subordination of individual to general interest.</li><li>Remuneration.</li><li>Centralisation and decentralisation.</li><li>Scalar chain.</li><li>Order.</li><li>Equity.</li><li>Stability of tenure.</li><li>Initiative.</li><li>Esprit de Corps.</li></ol><h2 class=heading id=3-types-of-authority-in-an-organisation-according-to-max-weber>3 types of Authority in an organisation according to Max Weber<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#3-types-of-authority-in-an-organisation-according-to-max-weber>#</a></span></h2><ol><li>Traditional Authority.</li><li>Charismatic Authority.</li><li>Legal-Rational Authority.</li></ol><h2 class=heading id=features-of-legal-rational-bureaucracy>Features of Legal-Rational Bureaucracy<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#features-of-legal-rational-bureaucracy>#</a></span></h2><p>A) Official and Regular Business Operations.<br>B) Well-Defined Rules and Procedures.<br>C) Clearly Defined Authority and Supervision.<br>D) Separation of Personal and Official Affairs.<br>E) Written Documentation.<br>F) Division of Labour and Specialisation.<br>G) Hierarchical Structure of Authority.<br>H) System of Abstract and Formal Rules.</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit2/>← Unit 2</a>
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 3</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-15-2026><em><strong>April 15, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#classical-approach-comprised-the-following-three-approaches>Classical approach comprised the following three approaches:</a><ul><li><a href=#a-scientific-management>A) Scientific Management</a></li><li><a href=#b-administration-management>B) Administration Management</a></li><li><a href=#c-bureaucratic-management>C) Bureaucratic Management</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#mechanisms-of-scientific-management>Mechanisms of Scientific Management</a></li><li><a href=#henri-fayols-14-principles-of-management>Henri Fayol&rsquo;s 14 Principles of Management</a></li><li><a href=#3-types-of-authority-in-an-organisation-according-to-max-weber>3 types of Authority in an organisation according to Max Weber</a></li><li><a href=#features-of-legal-rational-bureaucracy>Features of Legal-Rational Bureaucracy</a></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-15-2026><em><strong>April 15, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=classical-approach-comprised-the-following-three-approaches>Classical approach comprised the following three approaches:</h2><h3 class=heading id=a-scientific-management>A) Scientific Management</h3><p>In scientific management, scientific methods are used to study and analyse the problems in factories and businesses. It involves the use of rational methods, understanding issues, and finding relevant & practical solutions. The main contribution in scientific management is of Frederick Winslow Taylor, who is well renowned as ‘The father of scientific management’.</p><h3 class=heading id=b-administration-management>B) Administration Management</h3><p>It is mainly related to the performance of managers and has defined various functions of administration. In administration management, the emphasis is laid on evaluating the existing processes, identifying the underlying principles, and developing the management theories. These functions are interlinked and help managers perform effectively. The major contribution towards administration management is from Henry Fayol.</p><h3 class=heading id=c-bureaucratic-management>C) Bureaucratic Management</h3><p>This approach was founded by Max Weber, who believed bureaucracy is the best for the optimum utilisation of resources in an organisation. Such an approach is generally followed in government and military organisations. Bureaucratic management has a well-defined hierarchy, lines of authority, and procedures. Various rules and procedures are formed in bureaucracy to guide the functioning of an organisation.</p><h2 class=heading id=mechanisms-of-scientific-management>Mechanisms of Scientific Management</h2><p>A) Separation of Planning and Doing.<br>B) Functional Foremanship - Training Department/Functional Department.<br>C) Job Analysis.<br>D) Standardisation.<br>E) Scientific Selection and Training of Workers.<br>F) Financial Incentives.<br>G) Economy.<br>H) Mental Revolution.</p><h2 class=heading id=henri-fayols-14-principles-of-management>Henri Fayol&rsquo;s 14 Principles of Management</h2><ol><li>Division of work.</li><li>Authority and responsibility.</li><li>Discipline.</li><li>Unity of command.</li><li>Unity of direction.</li><li>Subordination of individual to general interest.</li><li>Remuneration.</li><li>Centralisation and decentralisation.</li><li>Scalar chain.</li><li>Order.</li><li>Equity.</li><li>Stability of tenure.</li><li>Initiative.</li><li>Esprit de Corps.</li></ol><h2 class=heading id=3-types-of-authority-in-an-organisation-according-to-max-weber>3 types of Authority in an organisation according to Max Weber</h2><ol><li>Traditional Authority.</li><li>Charismatic Authority.</li><li>Legal-Rational Authority.</li></ol><h2 class=heading id=features-of-legal-rational-bureaucracy>Features of Legal-Rational Bureaucracy</h2><p>A) Official and Regular Business Operations.<br>B) Well-Defined Rules and Procedures.<br>C) Clearly Defined Authority and Supervision.<br>D) Separation of Personal and Official Affairs.<br>E) Written Documentation.<br>F) Division of Labour and Specialisation.<br>G) Hierarchical Structure of Authority.<br>H) System of Abstract and Formal Rules.</p><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit2/>← Unit 2</a>
 <a class=page-nav__next-link href=/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit4/>Unit 4 →</a></nav></main><footer class=footer><p class=footer__copyright-notice>&copy; <a href=https://freedoms4.org>freedoms4.org</a>
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-<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 4 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content=" April 20, 2026 # Neoclassical Approaches # A) Human Relations Movement # Factors affecting the Human Relations Movement:
-Economic Depression - 1929. Progress in Technology. Response to Taylorism. Enmity between classes. 1. Contribution of Elton Mayo # The Hawthorne Experiments: A Landmark in Human Relations
+<!doctype html><html class=html lang=en-us dir=ltr><head><meta charset=utf-8><meta name=viewport content="width=device-width"><title>Unit 4 | Freedoms4</title><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/style.min.34d0accb85f8ec23ceee8c29eef5907823b531d8acb9e6bdf45a3b37ad028d30.css integrity="sha256-NNCsy4X47CPO7owp7vWQeCO1Mdisuea99Fo7N60CjTA=" crossorigin=anonymous><link rel=icon href=/favicon.ico><meta name=description content="April 20, 2026 Neoclassical Approaches A) Human Relations Movement Factors affecting the Human Relations Movement:
+Economic Depression - 1929. Progress in Technology. Response to Taylorism. Enmity between classes. 1. Contribution of Elton Mayo The Hawthorne Experiments: A Landmark in Human Relations
 Four Experiments:
-Illumination Experiments (1924–1927): Examined how changes in lighting affected worker productivity. Relay Assembly Test Room Experiments (1927–1928): Studied the impact of altered work conditions, such as hours and rest breaks, on output. Mass Interviewing Programme (1928–1930): Investigated employees’ attitudes, feelings, and perceptions toward their work. Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiments (1931–1932): Explored the effects of informal social groups on individual behaviour and productivity. B) Behavioral Approach # This approach focuses on understanding how individuals think, feel, and behave within organisational settings. Drawing insights from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics, it emphasises the importance of studying human behaviour scientifically to develop effective management practices."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit4/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 4"><meta property="og:description" content="April 20, 2026 # Neoclassical Approaches # A) Human Relations Movement # Factors affecting the Human Relations Movement:
-Economic Depression - 1929. Progress in Technology. Response to Taylorism. Enmity between classes. 1. Contribution of Elton Mayo # The Hawthorne Experiments: A Landmark in Human Relations
+Illumination Experiments (1924–1927): Examined how changes in lighting affected worker productivity. Relay Assembly Test Room Experiments (1927–1928): Studied the impact of altered work conditions, such as hours and rest breaks, on output. Mass Interviewing Programme (1928–1930): Investigated employees’ attitudes, feelings, and perceptions toward their work. Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiments (1931–1932): Explored the effects of informal social groups on individual behaviour and productivity. B) Behavioral Approach This approach focuses on understanding how individuals think, feel, and behave within organisational settings. Drawing insights from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics, it emphasises the importance of studying human behaviour scientifically to develop effective management practices."><meta property="og:url" content="https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit4/self/"><meta property="og:site_name" content="Freedoms4"><meta property="og:title" content="Unit 4"><meta property="og:description" content="April 20, 2026 Neoclassical Approaches A) Human Relations Movement Factors affecting the Human Relations Movement:
+Economic Depression - 1929. Progress in Technology. Response to Taylorism. Enmity between classes. 1. Contribution of Elton Mayo The Hawthorne Experiments: A Landmark in Human Relations
 Four Experiments:
-Illumination Experiments (1924–1927): Examined how changes in lighting affected worker productivity. Relay Assembly Test Room Experiments (1927–1928): Studied the impact of altered work conditions, such as hours and rest breaks, on output. Mass Interviewing Programme (1928–1930): Investigated employees’ attitudes, feelings, and perceptions toward their work. Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiments (1931–1932): Explored the effects of informal social groups on individual behaviour and productivity. B) Behavioral Approach # This approach focuses on understanding how individuals think, feel, and behave within organisational settings. Drawing insights from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics, it emphasises the importance of studying human behaviour scientifically to develop effective management practices."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 4"><meta itemprop=description content="April 20, 2026 # Neoclassical Approaches # A) Human Relations Movement # Factors affecting the Human Relations Movement:
-Economic Depression - 1929. Progress in Technology. Response to Taylorism. Enmity between classes. 1. Contribution of Elton Mayo # The Hawthorne Experiments: A Landmark in Human Relations
+Illumination Experiments (1924–1927): Examined how changes in lighting affected worker productivity. Relay Assembly Test Room Experiments (1927–1928): Studied the impact of altered work conditions, such as hours and rest breaks, on output. Mass Interviewing Programme (1928–1930): Investigated employees’ attitudes, feelings, and perceptions toward their work. Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiments (1931–1932): Explored the effects of informal social groups on individual behaviour and productivity. B) Behavioral Approach This approach focuses on understanding how individuals think, feel, and behave within organisational settings. Drawing insights from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics, it emphasises the importance of studying human behaviour scientifically to develop effective management practices."><meta property="og:locale" content="en_us"><meta property="og:type" content="article"><meta property="article:section" content="uninotes"><meta itemprop=name content="Unit 4"><meta itemprop=description content="April 20, 2026 Neoclassical Approaches A) Human Relations Movement Factors affecting the Human Relations Movement:
+Economic Depression - 1929. Progress in Technology. Response to Taylorism. Enmity between classes. 1. Contribution of Elton Mayo The Hawthorne Experiments: A Landmark in Human Relations
 Four Experiments:
-Illumination Experiments (1924–1927): Examined how changes in lighting affected worker productivity. Relay Assembly Test Room Experiments (1927–1928): Studied the impact of altered work conditions, such as hours and rest breaks, on output. Mass Interviewing Programme (1928–1930): Investigated employees’ attitudes, feelings, and perceptions toward their work. Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiments (1931–1932): Explored the effects of informal social groups on individual behaviour and productivity. B) Behavioral Approach # This approach focuses on understanding how individuals think, feel, and behave within organisational settings. Drawing insights from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics, it emphasises the importance of studying human behaviour scientifically to develop effective management practices."><meta itemprop=wordCount content="223"><meta itemprop=keywords content="S1,PBM DCM1110"><link rel=stylesheet href=/css/custom.css><script>(function(){var e=localStorage.getItem("theme");e&&document.documentElement.setAttribute("data-theme",e),localStorage.getItem("f4_username")==="hyzen"&&document.documentElement.classList.add("hyzen-user")})()</script><script async src=https://plausible.freedoms4.org/js/pa-5BKl0z0RLzwrclKq4y-qk.js></script><script>(window.plausible=window.plausible||function(){(plausible.q=plausible.q||[]).push(arguments)},plausible.init=plausible.init||function(e){plausible.o=e||{}}),plausible.init()</script></head><body class=body><header class=header><div class=brand><img src=/logo.png alt="Freedoms4 logo"><h1>Freedoms4</h1><div class=brand__actions><button class=theme-toggle id=theme-toggle aria-label="Toggle theme" title="Toggle dark/light mode">
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 <a href=/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit4/>Unit 4</a> ›
 <span>Self</span></nav><div class=uninotes-meta><span class=uninotes-meta__pill>S1</span> <span class=uninotes-meta__pill>PBM DCM1110</span>
-<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 4</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-20-2026><em><strong>April 20, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#neoclassical-approaches>Neoclassical Approaches</a><ul><li><a href=#a-human-relations-movement>A) Human Relations Movement</a></li><li><a href=#1-contribution-of-elton-mayo>1. Contribution of Elton Mayo</a></li><li><a href=#b-behavioral-approach>B) Behavioral Approach</a></li><li><a href=#1-abraham-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-theory>1. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory</a></li><li><a href=#2-douglas-mcgregors-theory-of-motivation>2. Douglas McGregor’s Theory of Motivation</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-20-2026><em><strong>April 20, 2026</strong></em><span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#april-20-2026>#</a></span></h3><h2 class=heading id=neoclassical-approaches>Neoclassical Approaches<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#neoclassical-approaches>#</a></span></h2><h3 class=heading id=a-human-relations-movement>A) Human Relations Movement<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#a-human-relations-movement>#</a></span></h3><p>Factors affecting the Human Relations Movement:</p><ul><li>Economic Depression - 1929.</li><li>Progress in Technology.</li><li>Response to Taylorism.</li><li>Enmity between classes.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=1-contribution-of-elton-mayo>1. Contribution of Elton Mayo<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#1-contribution-of-elton-mayo>#</a></span></h3><p>The Hawthorne Experiments: A Landmark in Human Relations</p><p>Four Experiments:</p><ol><li><strong>Illumination Experiments (1924–1927):</strong> Examined how changes in lighting affected worker productivity.</li><li><strong>Relay Assembly Test Room Experiments (1927–1928):</strong> Studied the impact of altered work conditions, such as hours and rest breaks, on output.</li><li><strong>Mass Interviewing Programme (1928–1930):</strong> Investigated employees’ attitudes, feelings, and perceptions toward their work.</li><li><strong>Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiments (1931–1932):</strong> Explored the effects of informal social groups on individual behaviour and productivity.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-behavioral-approach>B) Behavioral Approach<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#b-behavioral-approach>#</a></span></h3><p>This approach focuses on understanding how individuals think, feel, and behave within organisational settings. Drawing insights from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics, it emphasises the importance of studying human behaviour scientifically to develop effective management practices.</p><h3 class=heading id=1-abraham-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-theory>1. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#1-abraham-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-theory>#</a></span></h3><ol><li>Physiological Needs (Basic Needs).</li><li>Safety and Security Needs.</li><li>Social Needs (Belongingness and Love).</li><li>Esteem Needs.</li><li>Self-Actualisation Needs (Highest Level).</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=2-douglas-mcgregors-theory-of-motivation>2. Douglas McGregor’s Theory of Motivation<span class=heading__anchor> <a href=#2-douglas-mcgregors-theory-of-motivation>#</a></span></h3><ol><li><strong>Theory X:</strong> If managers think employees dislike work and avoid responsibility, they will adopt a strict, controlling style.</li><li><strong>Theory Y:</strong> If managers believe employees are self-motivated and capable of self-direction, they will encourage participation and creativity.</li></ol><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit3/>← Unit 3</a>
+<span class="uninotes-meta__pill uninotes-meta__pill--self">Self</span></div><h1>Unit 4</h1><details class=toc><summary class=toc__summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id=TableOfContents><ul><li><ul><li><a href=#april-20-2026><em><strong>April 20, 2026</strong></em></a></li></ul></li><li><a href=#neoclassical-approaches>Neoclassical Approaches</a><ul><li><a href=#a-human-relations-movement>A) Human Relations Movement</a></li><li><a href=#1-contribution-of-elton-mayo>1. Contribution of Elton Mayo</a></li><li><a href=#b-behavioral-approach>B) Behavioral Approach</a></li><li><a href=#1-abraham-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-theory>1. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory</a></li><li><a href=#2-douglas-mcgregors-theory-of-motivation>2. Douglas McGregor’s Theory of Motivation</a></li></ul></li></ul></nav></details><h3 class=heading id=april-20-2026><em><strong>April 20, 2026</strong></em></h3><h2 class=heading id=neoclassical-approaches>Neoclassical Approaches</h2><h3 class=heading id=a-human-relations-movement>A) Human Relations Movement</h3><p>Factors affecting the Human Relations Movement:</p><ul><li>Economic Depression - 1929.</li><li>Progress in Technology.</li><li>Response to Taylorism.</li><li>Enmity between classes.</li></ul><h3 class=heading id=1-contribution-of-elton-mayo>1. Contribution of Elton Mayo</h3><p>The Hawthorne Experiments: A Landmark in Human Relations</p><p>Four Experiments:</p><ol><li><strong>Illumination Experiments (1924–1927):</strong> Examined how changes in lighting affected worker productivity.</li><li><strong>Relay Assembly Test Room Experiments (1927–1928):</strong> Studied the impact of altered work conditions, such as hours and rest breaks, on output.</li><li><strong>Mass Interviewing Programme (1928–1930):</strong> Investigated employees’ attitudes, feelings, and perceptions toward their work.</li><li><strong>Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiments (1931–1932):</strong> Explored the effects of informal social groups on individual behaviour and productivity.</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=b-behavioral-approach>B) Behavioral Approach</h3><p>This approach focuses on understanding how individuals think, feel, and behave within organisational settings. Drawing insights from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics, it emphasises the importance of studying human behaviour scientifically to develop effective management practices.</p><h3 class=heading id=1-abraham-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-theory>1. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory</h3><ol><li>Physiological Needs (Basic Needs).</li><li>Safety and Security Needs.</li><li>Social Needs (Belongingness and Love).</li><li>Esteem Needs.</li><li>Self-Actualisation Needs (Highest Level).</li></ol><h3 class=heading id=2-douglas-mcgregors-theory-of-motivation>2. Douglas McGregor’s Theory of Motivation</h3><ol><li><strong>Theory X:</strong> If managers think employees dislike work and avoid responsibility, they will adopt a strict, controlling style.</li><li><strong>Theory Y:</strong> If managers believe employees are self-motivated and capable of self-direction, they will encourage participation and creativity.</li></ol><nav class=page-nav><a class=page-nav__previous-link href=/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit3/>← Unit 3</a>
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