# Freedoms4

https://freedoms4.org/ Recent updates on Freedoms4 Hugo en-us your-email@example.com (Freedoms4) your-email@example.com (Freedoms4) Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000

# Email

https://freedoms4.org/services/email-account/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/services/email-account/<div id="email-loggedin" style="display:none"> <p><strong>Email ID:</strong> <span id="email-address"></span></p> <p><strong>Password:</strong> Use the same password that you used during registration.</p> </div> <div id="email-loggedout" style="display:none"> <p>Please <a href="https://freedoms4.org/signup/">sign up</a> to create an email account.</p> </div> <script> (function () { var username = localStorage.getItem('f4_username'); if (username) { document.getElementById('email-address').textContent = username + '@freedoms4.org'; document.getElementById('email-loggedin').style.display = ''; } else { document.getElementById('email-loggedout').style.display = ''; } })(); </script>

# XMPP

https://freedoms4.org/services/xmpp-account/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/services/xmpp-account/<div id="xmpp-loggedin" style="display:none"> <p><strong>JID:</strong> <span id="xmpp-jid"></span></p> <p><strong>Password:</strong> Use the same password that you used during registration.</p> </div> <div id="xmpp-loggedout" style="display:none"> <p>Please <a href="https://freedoms4.org/signup/">sign up</a> to create an XMPP account.</p> </div> <script> (function () { var username = localStorage.getItem('f4_username'); if (username) { document.getElementById('xmpp-jid').textContent = username + '@freedoms4.org'; document.getElementById('xmpp-loggedin').style.display = ''; } else { document.getElementById('xmpp-loggedout').style.display = ''; } })(); </script>

# File Share

https://freedoms4.org/services/file-share/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/services/file-share/<p>Visit <a href="https://share.freedoms4.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> share.freedoms4.org↗ </a> to quickly upload files and get sharable links.</p>

# What is Education?

https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/ Sun, 01 Mar 2026 18:11:14 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/blog/what-is-education/<h1 class="heading" id="what-is-education"> What is Education?<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#what-is-education">#</a></span> </h1><p>Education simply means &ldquo;learning&rdquo;. It&rsquo;s a natural process.</p> <h3 class="heading" id="ratio-of-components-in-education"> Ratio of components in Education:<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#ratio-of-components-in-education">#</a></span> </h3><p>50% Knowledge/Understanding, 30% Skills, 20% Experience.</p> <h3 class="heading" id="education-vs-academics"> Education vs Academics:<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#education-vs-academics">#</a></span> </h3><p>Education and Academics are not the same thing. Academics is Education based of a curriculum and an institution. Plato discovered the word while describing his school of philosophy.</p> <h4 class="heading" id="academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays"> Academics system has evolved with time and got worst. Let&rsquo;s see what the system has become nowadays:<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#academics-system-has-evolved-with-time-and-got-worst-lets-see-what-the-system-has-become-nowadays">#</a></span> </h4><ul> <li>Wrong ratio of knowledge, skill, experience (knowledge takes about 90%).</li> <li>Generalised curriculum for all students.</li> </ul> <h4 class="heading" id="extra-bad"> Extra bad:<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#extra-bad">#</a></span> </h4><ul> <li>Goals are only bound to exams/grades, degree or certifications (year 1088), then getting jobs.</li> <li>Unhealthy pressure and competition for students.</li> <li>Money game.</li> <li>Politics.</li> </ul> <p>Education as a concept/implementation/system is good. Academics is good only as a concept. It&rsquo;s implementation and system is always the worst and corrupted.</p>

# Coming Soon

https://freedoms4.org/coming-soon/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/coming-soon/<p>This feature is not yet available. Check back later!</p>

# Contact

https://freedoms4.org/contact/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/contact/<p><strong>Admin:</strong> hyzen</p> <h2 class="heading" id="contacts"> Contacts<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#contacts">#</a></span> </h2><p><strong><a href="mailto:hyzen@freedoms4.org">Email</a> and <a href="xmpp:hyzen@freedoms4.org">XMPP</a>:</strong> <a href="mailto:hyzen@freedoms4.org">hyzen@freedoms4.org</a></p> <p><strong>IRC/Liberachat:</strong> hyzen, #freedoms4</p> <h2 class="heading" id="follow-on"> Follow on<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#follow-on">#</a></span> </h2><p><strong><a href="https://mastodon.social/@hyzen">Mastodon</a>:</strong> <a href="mailto:hyzen@mastodon.social">hyzen@mastodon.social</a></p> <p><strong>Lemmy:</strong> <a href="mailto:hyzen@lemmy.today">hyzen@lemmy.today</a></p>

# Login

https://freedoms4.org/login/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/login/

# Sign Up

https://freedoms4.org/signup/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/signup/

# Unit 1

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit1/self/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit1/self/<h3 class="heading" id="april-6-2026"> <em><strong>April 6, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#april-6-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="features-and-nature-of-business"> Features and Nature of Business<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#features-and-nature-of-business">#</a></span> </h2><p>A) Economic Activity.<br> B) Continuous Activity.<br> C) Profit Motive.<br> D) Exchange of goods and services.<br> E) Customer Orientation.<br> F) Risk and Uncertainty.<br> G) Legal and Ethical Compliance.<br> H) Global.</p> <h2 class="heading" id="concept"> Concept<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#concept">#</a></span> </h2><p>A) Value Creation.<br> B) Profit.<br> C) Social.<br> D) Organised.<br> E) Dynanic.</p> <h2 class="heading" id="scope"> Scope<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#scope">#</a></span> </h2><h3 class="heading" id="a-industry"> A) Industry<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#a-industry">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Primary Industry: Extraction of raw material (agriculture, mining).</li> <li>Secondary Industry: Manufacturing.</li> <li>Tertiary Industry: Service (banking, insurance, transport, delivery)</li> <li>Quaternary Sector: Knowledge based services (IT, education/training)</li> <li>Quinary Sector: Services of leading roles (Government services, NGOs)</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="b-commerce"> B) Commerce<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#b-commerce">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Trade.</li> <li>Auxiliaries to Trade.</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="c-modern-dimensions-of-business"> C) Modern Dimensions of Business<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#c-modern-dimensions-of-business">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>E-Business.</li> <li>Green Business.</li> <li>Social Business.</li> <li>Global Business.</li> </ol> <h2 class="heading" id="business-as-a-system"> Business as a System<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#business-as-a-system">#</a></span> </h2><p>A) Interdependance.<br> B) Input-Process-Output Model.<br> C) Open System.<br> D) Dynamic Nature.</p>

# Unit 1

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit1/live/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit1/live/<h3 class="heading" id="april-5-2026"> <em><strong>April 5, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#april-5-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="course-objectives"> Course Objectives<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#course-objectives">#</a></span> </h2><p>A) Develop analytical skills for interpreting consumer decision-making and market behaviour using economic tools.<br> B) Examine cost and revenue structures of firms.</p> <h2 class="heading" id="definition-of-economics-by-various-individuals"> Definition of Economics by various individuals<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#definition-of-economics-by-various-individuals">#</a></span> </h2><p>A) Wealth Definition by Adam Smith.<br> B) Welfare Definition by Alfred Marshall.<br> C) Scarcity Definition by Robbins.<br> D) Growth Defintion by Samuelson.</p> <h2 class="heading" id="nature"> Nature<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#nature">#</a></span> </h2><h3 class="heading" id="a-economics-as-a-science"> A) Economics as a Science<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#a-economics-as-a-science">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Positive (what is, based on data and logic)</li> <li>Normative (what ought to be, opinions, judgements)</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="b-economics-as-an-art"> B) Economics as an Art<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#b-economics-as-an-art">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Pure (what ought to be, ideals and goals)</li> <li>Applied (real world, how to implement)</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="a-described-economics-as-a-science"> A) Described Economics as a Science<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#a-described-economics-as-a-science">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Focuses on laws and cause-and-effect relationships (e.g Law of Demand).</li> <li>Models to predict economic outcomes.</li> <li>Data analysis, observation, hypothesis.</li> <li>Real-world evidence.</li> <li>Deductive and Inductive reasoning.</li> </ol> <ul> <li>Limitaion: Human behaviour involved.</li> </ul> <h2 class="heading" id="methods"> Methods<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#methods">#</a></span> </h2><p>A) Inductive (specific -&gt; general).<br> B) Deductive (general -&gt; specific).</p>

# Unit 1

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/ge-dcm1106/unit1/live/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/ge-dcm1106/unit1/live/<h3 class="heading" id="april-12-2026"> <em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#april-12-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="theories-on-the-origin-of-language"> Theories on the Origin of Language<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#theories-on-the-origin-of-language">#</a></span> </h2><h3 class="heading" id="types-of-theories"> Types of Theories<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#types-of-theories">#</a></span> </h3><p>A) Divine.<br> B) Bow-Bow.<br> C) Pooh-Pooh.<br> D) Ding-Dong.<br> E) Gesture.<br> F) Yo-He-Ho.<br> G) Musical.<br> H) Tool-Making.<br> I) Evolutionary.<br> J) Symbolic.<br> K) Contemporary Perspective.</p>

# Unit 1

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit1/live/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit1/live/<h3 class="heading" id="april-12-2026"> <em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#april-12-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="introduction"> Introduction<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#introduction">#</a></span> </h2><p>Management is a process where is an environment is developed to achieve the predefined goals and objectives through planning, organising, directing and controlling.</p>

# Unit 1

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit1/self/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit1/self/<h3 class="heading" id="april-5-2026"> <em><strong>April 5, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#april-5-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="characteristics-of-management"> Characteristics of Management<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#characteristics-of-management">#</a></span> </h2><p>A) Goal Oriented.<br> B) Pervasive.<br> C) Multidimentional:<br> (i) Management of People.<br> (ii) Management of Operations.<br> D) Continuous.<br> E) Dynamic.<br> F) Group Activity.<br> G) Intangible.</p> <h2 class="heading" id="functions-of-management"> Functions of Management<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#functions-of-management">#</a></span> </h2><p>A) Planning.<br> B) Organising.<br> C) Staffing.<br> D) Directing.<br> E) Controlling.</p> <h3 class="heading" id="a-planning"> A) Planning<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#a-planning">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Determine the goals or mission of the organisation.</li> <li>Forecast future conditions.</li> <li>Select the best course of action.</li> <li>Formulate policies, procedures, budgets.</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="b-organising"> B) Organising<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#b-organising">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Identify and analyse activities required to be operated on.</li> <li>Group similar activities.</li> <li>Assign duties to individuals.</li> <li>Delegate authority and responsibility to the individuals in managerial roles.</li> <li>Establish and announce clear authority relationships to ensure coordination and control.</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="c-staffing"> C) Staffing<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#c-staffing">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Recruitment and selection.</li> <li>Training.</li> <li>Performance appraisal.</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="d-directing"> D) Directing<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#d-directing">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Leadership and supervision.</li> <li>Motivation.</li> <li>Communication.</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="e-controlling"> E) Controlling<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#e-controlling">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Establish performance standards.</li> <li>Measure performance.</li> <li>Compare performance with the standards.</li> <li>Identify reasons for deviations.</li> <li>Implement corrective actions.</li> <li>Use feedback to evaluate performance improvement.</li> </ol> <h2 class="heading" id="significance-of-management"> Significance of Management<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#significance-of-management">#</a></span> </h2><p>A) Optimum unilization of resources.<br> B) Minimisation of costs.<br> C) Achievement of group goals.<br> D) Organisational stability.</p>

# Unit 11

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit11/self/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit11/self/<h3 class="heading" id="may-17-2026"> <em><strong>May 17, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#may-17-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="modes-of-business-combination"> Modes of Business Combination<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#modes-of-business-combination">#</a></span> </h2><h3 class="heading" id="a-associations"> A) Associations<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#a-associations">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Trade Association</li> <li>Chamber of Commerce</li> <li>Informal agreements</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="b-federations"> B) Federations<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#b-federations">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Formal agreements</li> <li>Pools</li> <li>Cartels</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="c-consolidations"> C) Consolidations<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#c-consolidations">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li> <p>Partials Consolidations<br> a. Trust<br> b. Holding Companies<br> c. Community of Interest</p> </li> <li> <p>Complete Consolidations<br> a. Mergers<br> b. Acquisition<br> c. Amalgamation</p> </li> </ol> <h2 class="heading" id="types-of-business-combination"> Types of Business Combination<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#types-of-business-combination">#</a></span> </h2><h3 class="heading" id="a-horizontal"> A) Horizontal<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#a-horizontal">#</a></span> </h3><p>These companies operate at the same level of production, distribution or supply chain.</p>

# Unit 12

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit12/self/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit12/self/<h3 class="heading" id="may-25-2026"> <em><strong>May 25, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#may-25-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="definitions"> Definitions<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#definitions">#</a></span> </h2><h3 class="heading" id="interest"> Interest<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#interest">#</a></span> </h3><p>The payment or reward given for borrowing money or using capital for a specific period of time.</p> <h3 class="heading" id="gross-interest"> Gross Interest<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#gross-interest">#</a></span> </h3><p>The total amount paid by the borrower to the lender for using borrowed money before deducting taxes, service charges, or other expenses.</p> <h3 class="heading" id="net-interest"> Net Interest<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#net-interest">#</a></span> </h3><p>The actual or pure interest earned or paid after excluding additional charges such as risk, management costs, and inconvenience.</p>

# Unit 2

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit2/self/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit2/self/<h3 class="heading" id="april-12-2026"> <em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#april-12-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="primary-sector"> Primary Sector<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#primary-sector">#</a></span> </h2><p>The Primary Sector comprises the delivery of raw materials up to the finished product. Industries in this sector include mining for oil, coal, iron, and other minerals; Forestry, agriculture, fish farming and land reclamation, etc.</p> <h2 class="heading" id="secondary-sector"> Secondary Sector<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#secondary-sector">#</a></span> </h2><p>The Secondary Sector refines, processes and manufactures. This includes industries like petrochemical refineries, steel-making mills, factories for making equipment and machinery for industry and goods for consumer purchase.</p>

# Unit 2

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit2/live/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit2/live/<h3 class="heading" id="april-12-2026"> <em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#april-12-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="types-of-utility"> Types of Utility<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#types-of-utility">#</a></span> </h2><p>A) Form Utility<br> B) Place<br> C) Time<br> D) Possession</p> <h2 class="heading" id="law-of-deminishing-marginal-utility"> Law of Deminishing Marginal Utility<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#law-of-deminishing-marginal-utility">#</a></span> </h2><h2 class="heading" id="law-of-equi-marginal-utility"> Law of Equi-Marginal Utility<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#law-of-equi-marginal-utility">#</a></span> </h2><h2 class="heading" id="law-of-demand"> Law of Demand<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#law-of-demand">#</a></span> </h2><p>Price and Quantity demanded for a product is inversely related.</p> <h2 class="heading" id="exceptions-of-law-of-demand"> Exceptions of Law of Demand<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#exceptions-of-law-of-demand">#</a></span> </h2><p>A) Assumption of increase in price.<br> B) Status goods or Veblen goods.<br> C) Giffen goods.<br> D) War.<br> E) Economic depression. F) Essential goods.</p>

# Unit 2

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit2/self/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit2/self/<h3 class="heading" id="april-12-2026"> <em><strong>April 12, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#april-12-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="behaviors-of-managers"> Behaviors of Managers<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#behaviors-of-managers">#</a></span> </h2><h3 class="heading" id="a-coaching-managers"> A) Coaching managers<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#a-coaching-managers">#</a></span> </h3><p>Coaching managers usually take on a teacher-like role, and they have an excellent understanding of the different stages of professional development. They love to motivate their employees to improve. They do this by helping them build strong personal relationships. Some of the most common qualities of a coaching manager include:</p> <ul> <li>Educating every employee of the organisation.</li> <li>Looking after the long-term professional development of their employees.</li> <li>Bringing the team together whilst also evaluating each individual&rsquo;s progress.</li> </ul> <h3 class="heading" id="b-authoritative-managers"> B) Authoritative managers<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#b-authoritative-managers">#</a></span> </h3><p>Authoritative managers make sure that they are handling most of the decision-making and task delegation by themselves, whilst also making sure that they are maintaining a strict protocol in their office. They most often focus on adhering to rules and making sure that employees complete tasks as per the company’s standard of quality. Some of the common qualities of an authoritative manager include:</p>

# Unit 3

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit3/self/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/bo-dcm1109/unit3/self/<h3 class="heading" id="april-15-2026"> <em><strong>April 15, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#april-15-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="types-of-co-operatives-formed"> Types of co-operatives formed<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#types-of-co-operatives-formed">#</a></span> </h2><p>A) Consumer co-operatives.<br> B) Producer co-operatives.<br> C) Marketing co-operatives.<br> D) Housing co-operatives.<br> E) Credit co-operatives.<br> F) Cooperative Farming Societies.</p> <h2 class="heading" id="types-of-companies"> Types of Companies<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#types-of-companies">#</a></span> </h2><h3 class="heading" id="a-on-the-basis-of-incorporation"> A) On the Basis of Incorporation<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#a-on-the-basis-of-incorporation">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Chartered Companies: Formed under a Royal Charter or special charter issued by the monarch (no longer applicable in India).</li> <li>Statutory Companies: Created by a special Act of Parliament or State Legislature. Example: Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Life Insurance Corporation (LIC).</li> <li>Registered Companies: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013. This includes almost all modern business entities in India.</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="b-on-the-basis-of-liability"> B) On the Basis of Liability<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#b-on-the-basis-of-liability">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Company Limited by Shares [Section 2(22)].</li> <li>Company Limited by Guarantee [Section 2(21)].</li> <li>Unlimited Liability Company [Section 2(92)].</li> <li>Company Limited by Both Guarantee and Shares.</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="c-on-the-basis-of-ownership"> C) On the Basis of Ownership<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#c-on-the-basis-of-ownership">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Private Company (Section 2(68)).</li> <li>Public Company (Section 2(71)).</li> <li>One Person Company (Section 2(62)).</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="d-on-the-basis-of-control"> D) On the Basis of Control<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#d-on-the-basis-of-control">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Holding Company: Controls one or more subsidiaries by owning over 50% voting rights or board control.</li> <li>Subsidiary Company: Controlled by another company. Example: Jaguar Land Rover (subsidiary of Tata Motors).</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="e-on-the-basis-of-nationality"> E) On the Basis of Nationality<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#e-on-the-basis-of-nationality">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Indian Company: Incorporated under the Companies Act, 2013 and managed in India.</li> <li>Foreign Company (Section 2(42)): Incorporated outside India but has a place of business in India. Example: Google India Pvt. Ltd.</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="f-on-the-basis-of-purpose"> F) On the Basis of Purpose<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#f-on-the-basis-of-purpose">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>For-Profit Companies.</li> <li>Non-Profit Companies (Section 8): Established for charitable, educational, or social purposes. Profits are reinvested to promote their objectives. Example: CRY Foundation.</li> </ol>

# Unit 3

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit3/self/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit3/self/<h3 class="heading" id="april-15-2026"> <em><strong>April 15, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#april-15-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="classical-approach-comprised-the-following-three-approaches"> Classical approach comprised the following three approaches:<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#classical-approach-comprised-the-following-three-approaches">#</a></span> </h2><h3 class="heading" id="a-scientific-management"> A) Scientific Management<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#a-scientific-management">#</a></span> </h3><p>In scientific management, scientific methods are used to study and analyse the problems in factories and businesses. It involves the use of rational methods, understanding issues, and finding relevant &amp; practical solutions. The main contribution in scientific management is of Frederick Winslow Taylor, who is well renowned as ‘The father of scientific management’.</p> <h3 class="heading" id="b-administration-management"> B) Administration Management<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#b-administration-management">#</a></span> </h3><p>It is mainly related to the performance of managers and has defined various functions of administration. In administration management, the emphasis is laid on evaluating the existing processes, identifying the underlying principles, and developing the management theories. These functions are interlinked and help managers perform effectively. The major contribution towards administration management is from Henry Fayol.</p>

# Unit 4

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit4/self/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/pbm-dcm1110/unit4/self/<h3 class="heading" id="april-20-2026"> <em><strong>April 20, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#april-20-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="neoclassical-approaches"> Neoclassical Approaches<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#neoclassical-approaches">#</a></span> </h2><h3 class="heading" id="a-human-relations-movement"> A) Human Relations Movement<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#a-human-relations-movement">#</a></span> </h3><p>Factors affecting the Human Relations Movement:</p> <ul> <li>Economic Depression - 1929.</li> <li>Progress in Technology.</li> <li>Response to Taylorism.</li> <li>Enmity between classes.</li> </ul> <h3 class="heading" id="1-contribution-of-elton-mayo"> 1. Contribution of Elton Mayo<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#1-contribution-of-elton-mayo">#</a></span> </h3><p>The Hawthorne Experiments: A Landmark in Human Relations</p> <p>Four Experiments:</p> <ol> <li><strong>Illumination Experiments (1924–1927):</strong> Examined how changes in lighting affected worker productivity.</li> <li><strong>Relay Assembly Test Room Experiments (1927–1928):</strong> Studied the impact of altered work conditions, such as hours and rest breaks, on output.</li> <li><strong>Mass Interviewing Programme (1928–1930):</strong> Investigated employees’ attitudes, feelings, and perceptions toward their work.</li> <li><strong>Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiments (1931–1932):</strong> Explored the effects of informal social groups on individual behaviour and productivity.</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="b-behavioral-approach"> B) Behavioral Approach<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#b-behavioral-approach">#</a></span> </h3><p>This approach focuses on understanding how individuals think, feel, and behave within organisational settings. Drawing insights from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics, it emphasises the importance of studying human behaviour scientifically to develop effective management practices.</p>

# Unit 5

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit5/self/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit5/self/<h3 class="heading" id="may-01-2026"> <em><strong>May 01, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#may-01-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="explicit-cost"> Explicit Cost<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#explicit-cost">#</a></span> </h2><p>Explicit costs are direct, out-of-pocket payments that a business or individual makes for the use of resources or services. These costs are tangible, measurable, and recorded in accounting books, including expenses like rent, utility bills, wages, raw materials, and interest on borrowed capital.</p> <h2 class="heading" id="implicit-cost"> Implicit Cost<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#implicit-cost">#</a></span> </h2><p>Implicit costs are not directly paid out or recorded in financial statements, but represent the opportunity costs of using resources owned by the firm or individual. Examples include the forgone salary if an entrepreneur works in their own business instead of being employed elsewhere, or the interest income sacrificed by investing personal funds in the business rather than elsewhere.</p>

# Unit 6

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit6/self/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit6/self/<h3 class="heading" id="may-02-2026"> <em><strong>May 02, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#may-02-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="production-function"> Production Function<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#production-function">#</a></span> </h2><p>The production function states the functional relationship between the factors of production and the number of products.</p> <p>Q = f (L, C, N)<br> Here, Q = Quantity of output, L = labour, C = capital, N = land.</p> <h2 class="heading" id="time-elements-in-production-function"> Time Elements in Production Function<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#time-elements-in-production-function">#</a></span> </h2><h3 class="heading" id="a-short-run"> A) Short run<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#a-short-run">#</a></span> </h3><p>In the short run, only some of the inputs can be varied, but not all. Some factors will remain fixed, and some will be variable.</p>

# Unit 7

https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit7/self/ Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000 your-email@example.com (Freedoms4)https://freedoms4.org/uninotes/s1/et-dcm1107/unit7/self/<h3 class="heading" id="may-08-2026"> <em><strong>May 08, 2026</strong></em><span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#may-08-2026">#</a></span> </h3><h2 class="heading" id="types-of-capital"> Types of Capital<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#types-of-capital">#</a></span> </h2><p>A) Owned/Borrowed Capital.<br> B) Fixed/Floating Capital.<br> C) Working Capital.<br> D) Gross Working Capital.<br> E) Net Working Capital.<br> F) Net Operating Working Capital.</p> <h2 class="heading" id="types-of-revenue"> Types of Revenue<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#types-of-revenue">#</a></span> </h2><h3 class="heading" id="a-operating-revenue"> A) Operating Revenue<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#a-operating-revenue">#</a></span> </h3><ol> <li>Sales Revenue.</li> <li>Service Revenue.</li> </ol> <h3 class="heading" id="b-gross-revenue"> B) Gross Revenue<span class="heading__anchor"> <a href="#b-gross-revenue">#</a></span> </h3><p>Gross revenue, often known as gross sales, is the entire amount of money your firm makes in a given accounting period before any deductions.</p>